<ol><li>Whatever begins to exist has a cause.</li><li>The universe began to exist.</li><li>Therefore, the universe has a cause.</li><li>If the universe has a cause, then an uncaused, personal Creator of the universe exists who without the universe is beginningless, changeless, immaterial, timeless, spaceless and enormously powerful.</li></ol>

The Kalam cosmological argument

<ol><li>The assumption that an uncaused beginning of all things is impossible.</li><li>The Causal Principle cannot be extrapolated to the universe from inductive experience (eg. the phenomenon of <a>quantum indeterminacy </a>, where, at the subatomic level, the <a>causal principle </a>appears to break down).</li></ol>

Criticisms of the Kalam cosmological argument

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The Kalam cosmological argument is a modern formulation of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument">cosmological argument </a>for the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God">existence of God </a>. It is named after the <a href="/wiki/Kalam">kalam </a> (medieval Islamic <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism">scholasticism </a>) from which its key ideas originated. It was popularized in the western world by <a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig">William Lane Craig </a>in his book, <a href="/wiki/The_Kal%C4%81m_Cosmological_Argument">The Kalām Cosmological Argument </a> (1979).

The argument's key underpinning idea is the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical">metaphysical </a>impossibility of <a href="/wiki/Actual_infinities">actual infinities </a>and of a temporally past-infinite universe, traced by Craig to 11th-century Persian Muslim scholastic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali </a>. This feature distinguishes it from other cosmological arguments, such as <a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)">that of Thomas Aquinas </a>, which rests on the impossibility of a <a href="/wiki/Causality">causally </a>ordered <a href="/wiki/Infinite_regress">infinite regress </a>, and those of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz">Leibniz </a>and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Clarke">Samuel Clarke </a>, which refer to the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_Sufficient_Reason">Principle of Sufficient Reason </a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1] </a>

Since Craig's original publication, the Kalam cosmological argument has elicited public debate between Craig and <a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy">Graham Oppy </a>, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum">Adolf Grünbaum </a>, <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie">J. L. Mackie </a>and <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Smith">Quentin Smith </a>, and has been used in <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics">Christian apologetics </a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2] </a> According to <a href="/wiki/Michael_Martin_(philosopher)">Michael Martin </a>, the cosmological arguments presented by Craig, Bruce Reichenbach, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne">Richard Swinburne </a>are "among the most sophisticated and well argued in contemporary <a href="/wiki/Theological">theological </a>philosophy".<a href="#cite_note-3">[3] </a>

<ul><li><a href="#Form_of_the_argument">1 Form of the argument </a> </li><li><a href="#Historical_background">2 Historical background </a> </li><li><a href="#Contemporary_discourse">3 Contemporary discourse </a><ul><li><a href="#Premise_one:_%22Whatever_begins_to_exist_has_a_cause.%22">3.1 Premise one: "Whatever begins to exist has a cause." </a><ul><li><a href="#Philosophical_objections">3.1.1 Philosophical objections </a> </li><li><a href="#Quantum_physics">3.1.2 Quantum physics </a> </li> </ul> </li><li><a href="#Premise_two:_%22The_universe_began_to_exist.%22">3.2 Premise two: "The universe began to exist." </a><ul><li><a href="#Cosmology_and_physics">3.2.1 Cosmology and physics </a> </li><li><a href="#Actual_infinities">3.2.2 Actual infinities </a> </li><li><a href="#Traversing_an_Infinite">3.2.3 Traversing an Infinite </a> </li> </ul> </li><li><a href="#Conclusion:_%22The_universe_has_a_cause.%22">3.3 Conclusion: "The universe has a cause." </a> </li><li><a href="#Theories_of_time">3.4 Theories of time </a> </li> </ul> </li><li><a href="#See_also">4 See also </a> </li><li><a href="#References">5 References </a><ul><li><a href="#Sources">5.1 Sources </a> </li> </ul> </li><li><a href="#Further_reading">6 Further reading </a> </li> </ul>

The most prominent form of the argument, as defended by William Lane Craig, states the Kalam cosmological argument as the following brief <a href="/wiki/Syllogism">syllogism </a>:<a href="#cite_note-4">[4] </a>

<ol><li>Whatever begins to exist has a cause. </li><li>The universe began to exist. </li><li>Therefore, the universe has a cause. </li> </ol>

Given the conclusion, Craig appends a further premise and conclusion based upon a conceptual analysis of the properties of the cause of the universe:<a href="#cite_note-5">[5] </a>

<ol><li>The universe has a cause. </li><li>If the universe has a cause, then an uncaused, personal Creator of the universe exists who sans (without) the universe is beginningless, changeless, immaterial, timeless, spaceless and enormously powerful. </li><li>Therefore, an uncaused, personal Creator of the universe exists, who sans the universe is beginningless, changeless, immaterial, timeless, spaceless and infinitely powerful. </li> </ol>

Referring to the implications of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Theism">Classical Theism </a>that follow from this argument, Craig writes:<a href="#cite_note-6">[6] </a>

may <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Guide_to_writing_better_articles#Stay_on_topic">stray from the topic </a>of the article

The Kalam cosmological argument is based on the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover">prime-mover </a>, introduced by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle </a>, and entered early Christian or Neoplatonist philosophy in Late Antiquity, being developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus">John Philoponus </a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7] </a> Along with much of classical Greek philosophy, the concept was adopted into medieval Islamic tradition, where it received its fullest articulation at the hands of Muslim scholars, most directly by Islamic theologians of the <a href="/wiki/Sunni">Sunni </a>tradition.

Its historic proponents include <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi </a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8] </a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali </a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9] </a> and <a href="/wiki/Bonaventure">St. Bonaventure </a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10] </a> <a href="#cite_note-11">[11] </a> <a href="#cite_note-12">[12] </a>

One of the earliest formulations of the cosmological argument in Islamic tradition comes from Al-Ghazali, who writes:

Between the 9th to 12th centuries, the cosmological argument developed as a concept within Islamic theology. It was refined in the 11th century by Al-Ghazali (<a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers">The Incoherence of the Philosophers </a> ), and in the 12th by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rushd">Ibn Rushd </a>(Averroes).<a href="#cite_note-14">[14] </a> It reached medieval Christian philosophy in the 13th century and was discussed by Bonaventure, as well as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas </a>in his <a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica">Summa Theologica </a> (I, q.2, a.3) and <a href="/wiki/Summa_Contra_Gentiles">Summa Contra Gentiles </a> (I, 13).

Islamic perspectives may be divided into positive Aristotelian responses strongly supporting the argument, such as those by Al-Kindi, and <a href="/wiki/Averroes">Averroes </a>, and negative responses critical of it, including those by Al-Ghazali and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal </a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15] </a> Al-Ghazali was unconvinced by the first-cause arguments of Al-Kindi, arguing that only the infinite per se is impossible, arguing for the possibility of the infinite per accidens . He writes:

<a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal </a>also stated:

According to the atheist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Smith">Quentin Smith </a>, "a count of the articles in the philosophy journals shows that more articles have been published about Craig’s defense of the Kalam argument than have been published about any other philosopher’s contemporary formulation of an argument for God’s existence."<a href="#cite_note-17">[17] </a>

The Kalam cosmological argument has received criticism from philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie">J. L. Mackie </a>, <a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy">Graham Oppy </a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Martin_(philosopher)">Michael Martin </a>, Quentin Smith, physicists <a href="/wiki/Paul_Davies">Paul Davies </a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Krauss">Lawrence Krauss </a>and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Stenger">Victor Stenger </a>, and authors such as <a href="/wiki/Dan_Barker">Dan Barker </a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18] </a>

Modern discourse encompasses the fields of both philosophy and science (<a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics">quantum physics </a>and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology">cosmology </a>), which Bruce Reichenbach summarises as:

Premise one: "Whatever begins to exist has a cause."  Edit

Craig defends the first premise as follows:<a href="#cite_note-Craig,_1994:_92-20">[20] </a> <a href="#cite_note-21">[21] </a>

<ol><li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism#The_intuition/deduction_thesis">Rational intuition </a>: He states that the first premise is <a href="/wiki/Axiom">self-evidently </a>true, being based upon the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical">metaphysical </a>intuition that "something cannot come into being from nothing", or <a href="/wiki/Nothing_comes_from_nothing">"Ex nihilo nihil fit" </a>, originating from <a href="/wiki/Parmenides">Parmenidean </a>philosophy. He affirms that this is a crucial <a href="/wiki/First_principle">first principle </a>of science. </li><li><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum">Reductio ad absurdum </a>: If false, it would be inexplicable why anything and everything does not randomly come into existence without a cause. </li><li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning">Inductive reasoning </a>from both common experience and scientific evidence, which constantly verifies and never falsifies the truth of the first premise. </li> </ol>

According to Reichenbach, "the Causal Principle has been the subject of extended criticism", which can be divided into philosophical and scientific criticisms.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22] </a>

<a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy">Graham Oppy </a>, <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie">J. L. Mackie </a>and Wes Morriston have objected to the intuitiveness of the first premise.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23] </a> <a href="#cite_note-24">[24] </a> <a href="#cite_note-25">[25] </a> Oppy states:

Mackie affirms that there is no good reason to assume <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori">a priori </a> that an uncaused beginning of all things is impossible. Moreover, that the Causal Principle cannot be extrapolated to the universe from inductive experience. He appeals to <a href="/wiki/David_Hume">David Hume </a>'s thesis (<a href="/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_Human_Understanding">An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding </a> ) that effects without causes can be conceived in the mind, and that what is conceivable in the mind is possible in the real world.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26] </a> This argument has been criticised by Bruce Reichenbach and <a href="/wiki/G.E.M._Anscombe">G.E.M. Anscombe </a>, who point out the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)">phenomenological </a>and logical problems in inferring factual possibility from conceivability.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27] </a> <a href="#cite_note-28">[28] </a> Craig notes:

Morriston asserts that causal laws are physical processes for which we have intuitive knowledge in the context of events within time and space, but that such intuitions do not hold true for the beginning of time itself. He states:

In reply, Craig has maintained that causal laws are unrestricted metaphysical truths that are "not contingent upon the properties, causal powers, and dispositions of the natural kinds of substances which happen to exist", remarking:

A common objection to premise one appeals to the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_indeterminacy">quantum indeterminacy </a>, where, at the subatomic level, the <a href="/wiki/Causality">causal principle </a>appears to break down.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33] </a> Craig replies that the phenomenon of indeterminism is specific to the <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Interpretation">Copenhagen Interpretation </a>of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_Mechanics">Quantum Mechanics </a>, pointing out that this is only one of a number of different interpretations, some of which he states are fully deterministic (mentioning <a href="/wiki/David_Bohm">David Bohm </a>) and none of which are as yet known to be true. He concludes that subatomic physics is not a proven exception to the first premise.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34] </a>

Philosopher Quentin Smith has cited the example of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_particles">virtual particles </a>, which appear and disappear from observation, apparently at random, to assert the tenability of uncaused natural phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35] </a> In his book <a href="/wiki/A_Universe_from_Nothing:_Why_There_is_Something_Rather_Than_Nothing">A Universe from Nothing: Why There is Something Rather Than Nothing </a> , cosmologist Lawrence Krauss has proposed how quantum mechanics can explain how space-time and matter can emerge from 'nothing' (referring to the quantum vacuum). Philosopher Michael Martin has also referred to quantum vacuum fluctuation models to support the idea of a universe with uncaused beginnings. He writes:

Philosopher of science <a href="/wiki/David_Albert">David Albert </a>has criticised the use of the term 'nothing' in describing the quantum vacuum. In a review of Krauss's book, he states:

Likewise, Craig has argued that the quantum vacuum, in containing quantifiable, measurable energy, cannot be described as 'nothing', therefore, that phenomena originating from the quantum vacuum cannot be described as 'uncaused'. On the topic of virtual particles, he writes:

Cosmologist Alexander Vilenkin has stated that even "the absence of space, time and matter" cannot truly be defined as 'nothing' given that the laws of physics are still present, though it would be "as close to nothing as you can get".<a href="#cite_note-39">[39] </a>

Premise two: "The universe began to exist."  Edit

Craig defends premise two using both physical arguments with evidence from cosmology and physics, and metaphysical arguments for the impossibility of <a href="/wiki/Actual_infinities">actual infinities </a>in reality.

For physical evidence, Craig appeals to:

<ol><li>Scientific confirmation against a past-infinite universe in the form of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.<a href="#cite_note-auto-40">[40] </a> </li><li>Scientific evidence that the universe began to exist a finite time ago at the Big Bang.<a href="#cite_note-auto-40">[40] </a> </li><li>The <a href="/wiki/Borde%E2%80%93Guth%E2%80%93Vilenkin_theorem">Borde–Guth–Vilenkin theorem </a>,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41] </a> a cosmological theorem which deduces that any universe that has, on average, been expanding throughout its history cannot be infinite in the past but must have a past space-time boundary. </li> </ol>

Professor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vilenkin">Alexander Vilenkin </a>, one of the three authors of the Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem, writes:

<a href="/wiki/Victor_J._Stenger">Victor J. Stenger </a>has referred to the Aguirre-Gratton model<a href="#cite_note-43">[43] </a> for <a href="/wiki/Eternal_inflation">eternal inflation </a>as an exemplar by which others disagree with the Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44] </a> In private correspondence with Stenger, Vilenkin remarked how the Aguirre-Gratton model attempts to evade a beginning by reversing the "arrow of time" at t = 0 , but that: "This makes the moment t = 0 rather special. I would say no less special than a true beginning of the universe."<a href="#cite_note-45">[45] </a>

At the "State of the Universe" conference at Cambridge University in January 2012, Vilenkin discussed problems with various theories that would claim to avoid the need for a cosmological beginning, alleging the untenability of eternal inflation, cyclic and cosmic egg models, eventually concluding: "All the evidence we have says that the universe had a beginning."<a href="#cite_note-46">[46] </a>

On the impossibility of <a href="/wiki/Actual_infinities">actual infinities </a>, Craig asserts:<a href="#cite_note-47">[47] </a>

<ol><li>The metaphysical impossibility of an actually infinite series of past events by citing <a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert">David Hilbert </a>'s famous <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_Hotel">Hilbert's Hotel </a><a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment">thought experiment </a>. </li><li>The mathematical impossibility of forming an actual infinite by successive addition.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48] </a> </li> </ol>

Michael Martin disagrees with these assertions by Craig, saying:

Andrew Loke has argued against the metaphysical possibility of a beginningless universe as well as that of an actual infinite existing in the real world.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50] </a>

Another criticism comes from <a href="/wiki/Thomism">Thomist </a>philosopher <a href="https://edwardfeser.blogspot.com/2016/09/yeah-but-is-it-actually-actually.html">Dr. Edward Feser </a>who claims that past and future events are potential rather than actual, meaning that an infinite past could exist in a similar way to how an infinite number of potential halfway points exist between any two given points (as was discussed in one of <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea">Zeno </a>'s paradoxes).

An alternative way to argue against the past eternity of the universe is through the impossibility of traversing (counting/crossing/completing) infinity. The argument generally goes something like this:

<ol><li>If the past were infinitely long, an infinite amount of time would have had to pass before today. </li><li>An infinite amount of time can never truly pass (because infinite time would never run out). </li><li>Therefore, the universe cannot be infinitely old. </li><li>Therefore, the universe began to exist. </li> </ol>

This argument presupposes presentism or the A Theory of time. If A Theory is correct, all past moments would have to occur before the present, which would vindicate the first premise. The second premise follows also from A Theory along with the nature of infinity being endless. Therefore, it follows that the universe cannot be infinitely old and began to exist.

Conclusion: "The universe has a cause."  Edit

Given that the Kalam cosmological argument is a <a href="/wiki/Deductive_argument">deductive argument </a>, if both premises are true, the truth of the conclusion follows necessarily.

In a critique of Craig's book The Kalam Cosmological Argument , published in 1979, Michael Martin states:<a href="#cite_note-51">[51] </a>

Martin also claims that Craig has not justified his claim of creation "ex nihilo ", pointing out that the universe may have been created from pre-existing material in a timeless or eternal state. Moreover, that Craig takes his argument too far beyond what his premises allow in deducing that the creating agent is greater than the universe. For this, he cites the example of a parent "creating" a child who eventually becomes greater than he or she.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52] </a>

In the subsequent Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology , published in 2009, Craig discusses the properties of the cause of the universe, arguing that they follow as consequences of a conceptual analysis and of the cause of the universe and by <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence">entailment </a>from the initial syllogism of the argument:<a href="#cite_note-53">[53] </a>

<ol><li>A first state of the material world cannot have a material explanation and must originate ex nihilo in being without material cause, because no natural explanation can be causally prior to the very existence of the natural world (space-time and its contents). It follows necessarily that the cause is outside of space and time (timeless , spaceless ), immaterial , and enormously powerful , in bringing the entirety of material reality into existence. </li><li>Even if positing a plurality of causes prior to the origin of the universe, the causal chain must terminate in a cause which is absolutely first and uncaused , otherwise an <a href="/wiki/Infinite_regress">infinite regress </a>of causes would arise. </li><li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_Razor">Occam's Razor </a>maintains that unicity of the First Cause should be assumed unless there are specific reasons to believe that there is more than one causeless cause. </li><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)">Agent causation </a>, volitional action, is the only ontological condition in which an effect can arise in the absence of prior determining conditions. Therefore, only personal, free agency can account for the origin of a first temporal effect from a changeless cause. </li><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_objects">Abstract objects </a>, the only other ontological category known to have the properties of being uncaused, spaceless, timeless and immaterial, do not sit in causal relationships, nor can they exercise volitional causal power. </li> </ol>

Craig concludes that the cause of the existence of the universe is an "uncaused, personal Creator ... who sans the universe is beginningless, changeless, immaterial, timeless, spaceless and enormously powerful"; remarking upon the theological implications of this union of properties.

Craig holds to the <a href="/wiki/A-series_and_B-series">A-theory of time </a>, also known as the "tensed theory of time" or <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_presentism">presentism </a>, as opposed to its alternative, the <a href="/wiki/B-theory_of_time">B-theory of time </a>, also known as the "tenseless theory of time" or <a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)">eternalism </a>. The latter would allow the universe to exist tenselessly as a four-dimensional space-time block, under which circumstances the universe would not "begin to exist":<a href="#cite_note-54">[54] </a> The form of the Kalam he presents rests on this theory:

Craig has defended the A-theory against objections from <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart </a>and hybrid A–B theorists.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55] </a> Philosopher Yuri Balashov has criticised Craig's attempt to reconcile the A-theory with special relativity by relying on a <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_ether_theory">‘neo‐Lorentzian interpretation’ of Special Relativity </a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56] </a> Balashov claims:<a href="#cite_note-57">[57] </a>

Craig has criticised Balashov for adopting a <a href="/wiki/Verificationism">verificationist </a>methodology that fails to address the metaphysical and theological foundations of the A-theory.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58] </a>

It has recently been argued that a defense of the Kalam cosmological argument does not have to involve such a commitment to the A-theory.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59] </a> Craig has since modified his view of the A-theory being necessary for the Kalam, stating that while the Kalam would need to be reformulated, "it wouldn't be fatal" on a B-theory.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60] </a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arguments_for_the_existence_of_God">Arguments for the existence of God </a> </li><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony">Cosmogony </a> </li><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology">Natural theology </a> </li><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason">Principle of sufficient reason </a> </li><li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism">Temporal finitism </a> </li><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_causation">Agent causation </a> </li><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam">Kalam </a> </li> </ul>

<ol><li><a href="#cite_ref-1">^ </a> .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit} <cite><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmological-argument/#TypoCosmArgu">"Cosmological Argument" </a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . 11 October 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2018 . </cite> </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-2">^ </a> Graham Smith, “Arguing about the Kalam Cosmological Argument,” Philo, 5(1), 2002: 34–61. See also: <a href="#SEP">Reichenbach, 2004 </a> </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-3">^ </a> <a href="#Mart">Martin, 1990 </a>: 101 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-4">^ </a> <a href="#CrgBC">Craig and Moreland, 2009 </a>: 102 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-5">^ </a> <a href="#CrgBC">Craig and Moreland, 2009 </a>: 194 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-6">^ </a> <a href="#CrgKC">Craig, 2000 </a>: 149 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-7">^ </a> Duncan, S., Analytic Philosophy of Religion: Its History Since 1955 (2010), Humanities-Ebooks, p. 165. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-8">^ </a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi </a>, On First Philosophy, with an Introduction and Commentary by Alfred L. Ivry (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press, 1974), pp. 67–75 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-9">^ </a> al Ghazali, Kitab al lqtisad, with a foreword by Î. A. Çubukçu and H. Atay (Ankara: University of Ankara Press, 1962), pp. 15–16. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-10">^ </a> Francis J. Kovach, 'The Question of the Eternity of the World in St. Bonaventure and St. Thomas – A Critical Analysis', Southwestern Journal of Philosophy 5 (1974), pp. 141–172. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-11">^ </a> <a href="#smith">Smith, 2007 </a>: 183 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-12">^ </a> <a href="#CrgKC">Craig, 2000 </a> </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-Craig,_1994:_80_13-0">^ </a> <a href="#CrgRF">Craig, 1994 </a>: 80 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-14">^ </a> Averroes, Ibn Rushd, The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Tahafut al-Tahafut) London:Luzac, 1954, pp. 58 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-15">^ </a> Iqbal, Muhammad The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam Lahore:Institute of Islamic Culture, 1986 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-16">^ </a> Al-Ghazzali, Tahafut Al-Falasifah (The Incoherence of Philosophers), translated by Sabih Ahmad Kamali. Lahore: Pakistan Philosophical Congress, 1963 pp. 90–91 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-17">^ </a> Quentin Smith, "Kalam Cosmological Arguments for Atheism", in Michael Martin (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 183 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-18">^ </a> <a href="#SEP">Reichenbach, 2004 </a>: 4.1 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-19">^ </a> <a href="#SEP">Reichenbach, 2004 </a>: 5.6 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-Craig,_1994:_92_20-0">^ </a> <a href="#CrgRF">Craig, 1994 </a>: 92 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-21">^ </a> <a href="#CrgBC">Craig and Moreland, 2009 </a>: 182-190 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-22">^ </a> <a href="#SEP">Reichenbach, 2004 </a>: 5.1 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-23">^ </a> Oppy G (2002). Arguing About The Kalam Cosmological Argument. Philo 5 (1):34-61 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-24">^ </a> <a href="#Mack">Mackie, 1982 </a>: 94 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-25">^ </a> Morriston W (2002). Causes and Beginnings in the Kalam Argument. Faith and philosophy, 19(2). </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-26">^ </a> <a href="#Mack">Mackie, 1982 </a>: 85 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-27">^ </a> <a href="#SEP">Reichenbach, 2004 </a>: 3.4 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-28">^ </a> G.E.M. Anscombe, '"Whatever has a beginning of existence must have a cause": Hume's argument exposed', Analysis XXXIV (1974), 150. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-29">^ </a> <a href="http://www.reasonablefaith.org/professor-mackie-and-the-kalam-cosmological-argument">Professor Mackie and the Kalam Cosmological Argument </a>, William Lane Craig </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-30">^ </a> David Hume to John Stewart, February 1754, in The Letters of David Hume, 2 vols., ed. J. T. Grieg (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1932), 1, 187 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-31">^ </a> Morriston W (2000). Must the Beginning of the Universe Have a Personal Cause? A Critical Examination of the Kalam Cosmological Argument. Faith and Philosophy, 17:149. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-32">^ </a> <a href="http://www.reasonablefaith.org/must-the-beginning-of-the-universe-have-a-personal-cause-a-rejoinder">Must the Beginning of the Universe Have a Personal Cause?: A Rejoinder </a>, William Lane Craig </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-33">^ </a> <cite>Davies, Paul (1982). Superforce . Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 94. </cite> </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-34">^ </a> Moreland, James Porter, and William Lane. Craig. Philosophical foundations for a Christian worldview. Downers Grove, Ill: InterVarsity P. 469 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-35">^ </a> Smith, Q (1988), "The Uncaused Beginning of the Universe," Philosophy of Science 55:39-57. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-36">^ </a> <a href="#Mart">Martin, 1990 </a>: 106. Martin lists the following sources as examples: Edward P. Tryon, "Is the Universe a Vacuum Fluctuation?" Nature , 246, December 14, 1973, pp. 396–397; Edward P. Tryon, "What Made the World? New Scientist , 8, March 1984, pp. 14–16; Alexander Vilenkin, "Creation of Universes from Nothing," Physics Letters , 117B, 1982, pp. 25–28; Alexander Vilenkin, "Birth of Inflationary Universes," Physical Review , 27, 1983, pp. 2848–2855; L. P. Grishchuck and Y. B. Zledovich, "Complete Cosmological Theories," The Quantum Structure of Space and Time , ed. M. J. Duff and C. J. Isham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 409–422; Quentin Smith, "The Uncaused Beginning of the Universe," Philosophy of Science , 55, 1988, pp. 39–57. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-37">^ </a> <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/25/books/review/a-universe-from-nothing-by-lawrence-m-krauss.html?_r=0">On the Origin of Everything </a>, David Albert, The New York Times, March 2012 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-38">^ </a> "The Caused Beginning of the Universe: a Response to Quentin Smith." British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 44 (1993): 623-639. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-39">^ </a> <a href="http://now.tufts.edu/articles/beginning-was-beginning">In the Beginning Was the Beginning </a>, Tufts Now 2014 </li><li>^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_40-0">a </a><a href="#cite_ref-auto_40-1">b </a> <a href="http://www.reasonablefaith.org/the-existence-of-god-and-the-beginning-of-the-universe">The Existence of God and the Beginning of the Universe </a>, William Lane Craig </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-41">^ </a> A. Borde, A. Guth and A. Vilenkin (2003). "Inflationary space-times are incomplete in past directions". Physical Review Letters 90 (15): 151301. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-42">^ </a> Vilenkin, A. (2007) Many Worlds in One: The Search for Other Universes, p.175 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-43">^ </a> Aguirre A and Gratton S (2002). Steady-state eternal inflation; Phys. Rev. D 65, 083507 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-44">^ </a> Victor J. Stenger. God and the Folly of Faith: The Incompatibility of Science and Religion. Prometheus Books, 2012. </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-45">^ </a> <cite>Victor J. Stenger (15 April 2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h9BAXtVsfdcC">The Fallacy of Fine-Tuning: Why the Universe Is Not Designed for Us </a>. Prometheus Books. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781616144449">9781616144449 </a>. </cite> </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-46">^ </a> <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21328474.400-why-physicists-cant-avoid-a-creation-event.html">Why Physicists Can't Avoid A Creation Event </a>, New Scientist 2012 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-47">^ </a> Craig William Lane, Reasonable Faith Christian Truth and Apologetics Third Edition 118-120 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-48">^ </a> Craig William Lane, Reasonable Faith, Christian Truth and Apologetics, Third Edition, pp.120-124 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-49">^ </a> <a href="#Mart">Martin, 1990 </a>: 104–105 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-50">^ </a> <a href="#Andrew2017">Loke, 2017 </a>, 55-61, 67-68 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-51">^ </a> <a href="#Mart">Martin, 1990 </a>: 103 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-52">^ </a> <a href="#Mart">Martin, 1990 </a>: 103–14 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-53">^ </a> <a href="#CrgBC">Craig and Moreland, 2009 </a>: 193–194 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-54">^ </a> <a href="#CrgBC">Craig and Moreland, 2009 </a>: 183–184 </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-55">^ </a> <cite>Oaklander, L. Nathan (2002). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IxIlqbSWg4gC">"Presentism, Ontology and Temporal Experience" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Craig_Callender">Craig Callender </a>(ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/timerealityexper0000unse/page/73">Time, reality & experience </a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press">Cambridge University Press </a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/timerealityexper0000unse/page/73">73–90 </a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52967-9">978-0-521-52967-9 </a>. </cite> </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-56">^ </a> <cite>Balashov, Yuri; Janssen, Michel (2003). <a href="http://bjps.oxfordjournals.org/content/54/2/327.short">"Presentism and Relativity" </a>. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science . 54 (2): 327–346. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)">CiteSeerX </a><a href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.114.5886">10.1.1.114.5886 </a> . <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi </a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjps%2F54.2.327">10.1093/bjps/54.2.327 </a>. Retrieved 11 April 2014 . </cite> </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-57">^ </a> <cite>Balashov, Yuri (2007). <a href="http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/23018-a-future-for-presentism/">"A Future for Presentism" </a>. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews . </cite> </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-58">^ </a> <a href="http://www.reasonablefaith.org/response-to-mccall-and-balashov">Response to McCall and Balashov </a><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160813160733/http://www.reasonablefaith.org/response-to-mccall-and-balashov">Archived </a>13 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine">Wayback Machine </a>, William Lane Craig </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-59">^ </a> <a href="#Watr">Waters, 2015 </a> </li><li><a href="#cite_ref-60">^ </a> <cite><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=2134&v=ZhrGWKuhLek">"Dr. Craig Answers Questions on the Kalam, Heaven, Free Will, B-Theory, and MORE!" </a>. </cite> </li> </ol>

<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Dan_Barker">Barker, Dan </a>(1999). <a href="http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/dan_barker/kalamity.html">"Cosmological Kalamity" </a>. The Secular Web. Retrieved 3 December 2009 . </cite> </li><li><cite><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig">Craig, William Lane </a>(1979). The KalāmCosmological Argument . Wipf & Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57910-438-2">978-1-57910-438-2 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite>Craig, William Lane (1996). <a href="http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/craig-smith1.html">"Initial Arguments: A Defense of the Cosmological Argument for the Existence of God" </a>. Leadership University. Retrieved 28 November 2009 . </cite> </li><li><cite>Craig, William Lane (1994). Reasonable Faith . Moody Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89107-764-0">978-0-89107-764-0 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite>Craig, William Lane (2000). The Kalam Cosmological Argument . Wipf and Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57910-438-2">978-1-57910-438-2 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite>Craig, William Lane (2007). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091215130342/http://www.reasonablefaith.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5705">"Causal Premiss of the Kalam Argument" </a>. Reasonable Faith. Archived from <a href="http://www.reasonablefaith.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5705">the original </a>on 15 December 2009. Retrieved 27 November 2009 . </cite> </li><li><cite>Craig, William Lane (2008). Reasonable Faith . Crossway Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4335-0115-9">978-1-4335-0115-9 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite>Craig, William Lane; <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Smith">Smith, Quentin </a>(1993). Theism, Atheism, and Big Bang Cosmology . Clarendon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-826348-7">978-0-19-826348-7 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite>Craig, William Lane; <a href="/wiki/J._P._Moreland">Moreland, J. P. </a>(2009). The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology . John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7657-6">978-1-4051-7657-6 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite><a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrew_Loke&action=edit&redlink=1">Loke, Andrew Ter Ern </a>(2017). God and Ultimate Origins . Springer International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319575476">9783319575476 </a>. </cite> </li> </ul>

<ul><li><cite><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie">Mackie, J. L. </a>(1982). The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God . Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824682-4">978-0-19-824682-4 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Michael_Martin_(philosopher)">Martin, Michael </a>(1990). <a href="https://archive.org/details/atheismphilosoph00mart_0">Atheism: A Philosophical Justification </a> . Temple University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87722-943-8">978-0-87722-943-8 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy">Oppy, Graham </a>(1995). <a href="http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/graham_oppy/reply.html">"Reply To Professor Craig" </a>. The Secular Web. Retrieved 3 December 2009 . </cite> </li><li><cite>Reichenbach, Bruce (2004). <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmological-argument">"Cosmological Argument: The Causal Principle and Quantum Physics" </a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 10 September 2016 . </cite> </li><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell">Russell, Bertrand </a>(1957). Edwards, Paul (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/whyiamnotachrist00russ">Why I Am Not A Christian </a> . Simon and Schuster. </cite> </li><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Smith">Smith, Quentin </a>(2007). Martin, Michael (ed.). Kalam Cosmological Arguments for Atheism . Cambridge University Press. </cite> </li><li><cite>Waters, B. V. (2015). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23311983.2015.1062461">"Toward a new kalām cosmological argument" </a>. Cogent Arts and Humanities . 2 (1): 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi </a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F23311983.2015.1062461">10.1080/23311983.2015.1062461 </a> . </cite> </li> </ul>

<ul><li><cite>Craig, William Lane (1999). <a href="http://www.reasonablefaith.org/a-swift-and-simple-refutation-of-the-kalam-cosmological-argument">"A swift and simple refutation of the Kalam cosmological argument?" </a>. Religious Studies . 35 (1): 57–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi </a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0034412598004703">10.1017/s0034412598004703 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite><a href="/wiki/Paul_Copan">Copan, Paul </a>; Craig, William Lane (2004). Creation out of Nothing: A Biblical, Philosophical, and Scientific Exploration . Baker Academic. </cite> </li><li><cite><a href="/wiki/J._P._Moreland">Moreland, J. P. </a>(1987). Scaling the Secular City: A Defence of Christianity . Baker Academic. </cite> </li><li><cite>Nowacki, Mark (2007). The Kalam Cosmological Argument for God . Studies in Analytic Philosophy. Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)">ISBN </a><a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-473-6">978-1-59102-473-6 </a>. </cite> </li><li><cite>Vaas, Rüdiger (2004). <a href="https://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0408/0408111.pdf">"Time before Time" </a>(PDF) . Bild der Wissenschaf (10): 32–41. </cite> </li><li><cite>Waters, B. V. (2013). <a href="http://philpapers.org/archive/WATMDA-2.pdf">"Methuselah's Diary and the Finitude of the Past" </a>(PDF) . Philosophia Christi . 15 (2): 463–469. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)">doi </a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fpc201315240">10.5840/pc201315240 </a>. </cite> </li> </ul>

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Kalam cosmological argument - Wikipedia

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