In The Second Treatise of Government, John Locke begins by addressing the reader directly, expressing his hope that his work will support King William’s rightful claim to the throne of England. He argues that the only legal way to run a government is through the agreement of the people, and that King William’s rule is based on this principle

Introduction: Locke’s Purpose and Critique of Filmer

Locke also criticizes Sir Robert Filmer’s ideas, dismissing them as doubtful expressions and nonsensical rhetoric. He warns that incorrect ideas about government are among the most dangerous beliefs, though he remains open to reasonable critiques. However, he emphasizes that valid arguments do not lead to unnecessary complaints or conflicts.

Locke refutes Filmer’s claim that God gave Adam natural authority over the world or the right to rule as a father. Locke argues that even if Adam had been granted such power, it would not extend to his descendants, and since Adam lived long ago, it is impossible to prove his offspring still exist. Thus, political power cannot originate from this supposed divine grant.Instead, Locke defines political power as the right to create and enforce laws for the protection of the commonwealth, safeguarding property, and promoting the public good. He distinguish political power from other form of power.

Refuting Filmer’s Divine Authority of Adam

To explain political power, Locke delves into the state of nature, a condition where individuals are free and equal, yet bound by natural law, which prohibits harming others' lives, liberties, health, or property. In the absence of government, everyone has the right to punish those who violate this law, but Locke acknowledges that people may punish excessively.

The State of Nature and Natural Law

Civil government, therefore, arises to mitigate these violent tendencies. Locke differentiates between a peaceful state of nature and a state of war, which occurs when individuals seek complete control over others, threatening self-preservation. He asserts that individuals have the right to defend themselves against such threats.

Locke argues that society was formed to avoid the violence of the state of war, with individuals agreeing to appoint a single judge to resolve disputes. He asserts that everyone has a natural right to self-preservation and to resources provided by nature, which become personal property when mixed with labor. For example, gathering acorns from a tree makes them the gatherer’s property. Similarly, land cultivated by an individual becomes their property.However, Locke imposes limits, stating that people should only take what they can use before it spoils.

Formation of Society and Private Property

Men being, as has been said, by nature, all free, equal and independent, no one can be put out of this estate, and subjected to the political power of another, without his own consent.

Locke also discusses parental power, which he describes as the authority parents hold over their children until they can reason independently. This power is shared by both parents and is limited because it does not extend to the child’s life or possessions. Locke criticizes the idea that kings rule as fathers, arguing that granting absolute power to rulers eliminates personal freedom. Political power, Locke insists, can only arise through the consent of the governed.

Parental Power and Critique of Monarchical Authority

Locke describes the formation of democratic societies, which require clear laws, impartial judges, and mechanisms to enforce these laws. When individuals leave the state of nature to join a commonwealth, they relinquish their personal rights to self-preservation and punishment, transferring these powers to the commonwealth.

The Role of Democratic Society

The legislative power, as the highest authority, creates laws to protect the commonwealth, while the executive enforces these laws, and the federative handles external affairs like war and peace. These powers, derived from the people, must always work for the public good and require the people’s consent.

Locke warns that governments can fail due to external forces like conquest and tyranny or internal issues like corruption and the abuse of legislative authority. He argues that when a government stops serving the commonwealth or enforces arbitrary laws, it loses its legitimacy. If a king abdicates or the government becomes dysfunctional, the power returns to the people, who then have the right to rebuild the government.

Causes of Government Failure and the People’s Right to Resist

Locke maintains that it is up to the people to judge whether their government is acting against their interests, and if it is, they have the right to resist and establish a new government that serves the public good.

Full Summary of Second Treatise of Government by John Locke

"[Presents] one of the great classics of political philosophy, widely regarded as the foundational text of modern liberalism ... [Also includes] 'A letter concerning toleration' aimed to end Christianity's wars of religion and called for the separation of church and state so that everyone could enjoy freedom of conscience"--Provided by publisher.

philosophy

Philosophy

history

History

books

Books

politics

Politics

artsandculture

Society, Arts & Culture

John Locke

Second Treatise of Government

The Social Contract to address two central questions in social philosophy: 1. How people can remain free while living under the control of a state2. What makes a state's power legitimate

Introduction

He states that people create nations by uniting their individual powers through a social contract, agreeing to govern themselves collectively and protect each other's rights.To form a country, individuals must relinquish certain freedoms they possessed in the state of nature. However, these are replaced by the more significant civil freedom of living in society, which fosters moral and intellectual growth.

Rousseau states that a state is only legitimate when people govern themselves an idea he calls authority. People make laws and delegate the enforcement of those laws to a government, which represents the executive power.

Book I

Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains

He delves into the concept of sovereignty, which Rousseau defines as the collective authority of the people over themselves. He emphasizes that the ruler, as a collective entity, must prioritize the public interest over private goals and avoid benefiting some citizens at the expense of others. Rousseau critiques political parties for potentially undermining the general will, arguing that legitimate authority must serve the common good. He also asserts that laws must be abstract and impartial, applying equally to all.

Book II

Every man has a right to risk his own life in order to preserve it

Rousseau examines different forms of government like democracy, aristocracy, and monarchybased on how executive power is organized. He clarifies that his use of these terms differs from modern definitions. For Rousseau, a democracy involves citizens both making and enforcing laws, which he sees as impractical. Monarchy, where one individual holds all executive power, risks tyranny and inefficiency.

Book III

Instead, Rousseau favors aristocracy, where a small, chosen group oversees governance, provided it serves the people's interests. He also notes that the structure of government should adapt to the size and needs of the state, with larger states requiring more hierarchical systems.Rousseau argues that governments inevitably decline when they encroach upon the people's sovereignty. He suggests that citizens regularly assemble to discuss laws and limit governmental power. Roman Republic as an example of a system where citizens directly participated in lawmaking, ensuring the sovereignty of them.

Rousseau addresses challenges to maintaining a just government. He stresses that the general will must reflect the collective good, though individuals often prioritize personal interests over communal ones which is a sign of societal decay. Rousseau supports the idea of tribunals to check governmental overreach and, in extreme cases, endorses the Roman concept of a temporary dictatorship during crises.

Book IV

He concludes that cultivating civic virtues is essential for sustaining a healthy state, proposing a civil religion to instill moral values and respect for the social contract. While Christianity focuses on salvation in the afterlife, Rousseau’s civil religion emphasizes principles that promote societal harmony and adherence to the law.

Full Summary of The Social Contract by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The eighteenth-century philosopher’s landmark treatise against monarchy that inspired the French and American Revolutions.  “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.”   With these stirring words, Jean-Jacques Rousseau begins The Social Contract—the first shot in a battle of ideas that would set the stage for the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. In the feverish days of the Enlightenment, Rousseau took aim squarely at the all-powerful French monarchy, proclaiming that no despot, no matter how powerful, had the right to terrorize his people. He laid out a plan for a new kind of government—an idea that was radical then, and remains so now.   The Social Contract is a landmark document from a fascinating period in world history and an invaluable guide to the foundations of modern democracy.   This ebook has been professionally proofread to ensure accuracy and readability on all devices.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The Social Contract

Césaire exposes the glaring contradiction between Europe's stated moral values and its historical actions. Europeans claim that colonization brought freedom, justice, and civilization to the world, but Césaire calls this a convenient lie that legitimized hateful and destructive policies. He asserts that there is nothing noble about forcibly converting people to Christianity or stealing their art for Western museums.

Moral Corruptions

Instead, the idea of European civilization served as a pretext for exploiting the labor and resources of the colonized in brutal ways. Césaire argues that Europe’s so-called civilizing mission not only devastated the lives and well-being of non-European peoples but also corrupted Europe’s own moral culture. The ruling class, or bourgeoisie, became morally bankrupt, inventing the notion of civilization to justify its cruel policies, thereby losing the ability to recognize the humanity of nonwhite people.

I say that between colonization and civilization there is an infinite distance; that out of all the colonial expeditions that have been undertaken, out of all the colonial statutes that have been drawn up, out of all the memoranda that have been dispatched by all the ministries, there could not come a single human value.

Césaire provocatively asserts that the Holocaust was not an aberration but rather the logical conclusion of European history. He claims that most European governments grew by killing people, just as the Nazis did, and even European humanists supported white supremacist ideas similar to those driving Hitler's policies. He highlights how colonial violence dehumanized both the colonized and the colonizers.

European's Logical Conclusion

For instance, French conquerors reveled in atrocities like rape and murder, which exemplified how colonialism reduced nonwhite people to objects while stripping colonizers of their humanity. Césaire famously states, "colonization equals thingification," emphasizing that colonialism objectified and dehumanized its victims while eroding the colonizers' ethical integrity. He further points out that the world was already home to complex, advanced, and democratic civilizations that Europe destroyed in the name of bringing civilization.

Césaire continues to critique colonial violence, pointing out that it persisted even after World War II. For example, the French brutally suppressed the Malagasy uprising in Madagascar, killing tens of thousands. Despite this, prominent French intellectuals continued to defend white supremacy. Césaire calls for a new society that uses modern productive powers democratically to ensure freedom and human rights for all rights that European and American elites hoard for themselves.

He directly condemns journalists and academics who justify the brutality of colonialism. He argues that colonial-era scholars, particularly anthropologists, were complicit in colonial violence because they created the myths Europeans used to rationalize their actions. These myths, grounded in racism, falsely asserted that only white people were capable of science and knowledge.

Critic to colonial-era scholar

Césaire critiques specific figures, such as:Geographer Pierre Gourou, who claimed that tropical climates made non-Europeans incapable of civilization, and Reverend Tempels, who fabricated a theory suggesting that Congolese people desired enslavement by Belgians.

Psychoanalyst Octave Mannoni attributed Madagascar's colonization to psychological differences, portraying Africans as dependent and collectively mad when they sought independence.Anthropologist Roger Caillois outright denied nonwhite people’s capacity for science, ignoring the Egyptians’ mathematical innovations and Arab philosophers’ contributions to rationalism. Césaire dismisses these arguments as baseless, rooted in racism rather than evidence.

Césaire reiterates his call for global change. He compares Western Europe’s overreach to the collapse of ancient Rome, suggesting that Europe's excesses threaten its downfall. As of 1950, the colonized peoples of the world aspire to freedom and a more equitable future. Although the United States appears poised to continue the legacy of colonialism through economic dominance and capitalism, Césaire believes that Latin American, African, and Asian nations can forge a classless society that guarantees sovereignty, independence, and prosperity values that the West falsely claimed to uphold.

Call for Global Action

Full Summary of the Discourse on Colonialism by Aime Cesaire

"Césaire's essay stands as an important document in the development of third world consciousness--a process in which [he] played a prominent role." --Library Journal This classic work, first published in France in 1955, profoundly influenced the generation of scholars and activists at the forefront of liberation struggles in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Nearly twenty years later, when published for the first time in English, Discourse on Colonialism inspired a new generation engaged in the Civil Rights, Black Power, and anti-war movements and has sold more than 75,000 copies to date. Aimé Césaire eloquently describes the brutal impact of capitalism and colonialism on both the colonizer and colonized, exposing the contradictions and hypocrisy implicit in western notions of "progress" and "civilization" upon encountering the "savage," "uncultured," or "primitive." Here, Césaire reaffirms African values, identity, and culture, and their relevance, reminding us that "the relationship between consciousness and reality are extremely complex. . . . It is equally necessary to decolonize our minds, our inner life, at the same time that we decolonize society." An interview with Césaire by the poet René Depestre is also included.

Aimé Césaire

Discourse on Colonialism

Stephen Hawking’s A Brief History of Time explores fundamental questions about the origins and destiny of the universe, such as where everything came from and where it is headed. Advances in technology have enabled modern science to offer answers to these profound inquiries.

Tracing the Origins of the Universe and Historical Breakthroughs

Hawking begins by tracing significant scientific breakthroughs throughout history that have expanded our understanding. For instance, while ancient Greeks like Aristotle realized the Earth was round, they mistakenly believed it was the center of the universe. This geocentric view was challenged in 1514 when Nicholas Copernicus proposed that planets, including Earth, orbit the Sun.In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton formulated laws of gravity, theorized that stars exert gravitational force on one another, and questioned whether the universe was infinite.

Later, in 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that galaxies are moving away from each other, suggesting that the universe is expanding and originated from an infinitely dense point, a concept compatible with the idea of God, according to Hawking.

No matter how many times the results of experiments agree with some theory, you can never be sure that the next time the result will not contradict the theory.

Hawking highlights science's ultimate goal: to unify all theories into one comprehensive explanation. Currently, scientists rely on two major partial theories: the general theory of relativity, which addresses gravity and large celestial bodies, and quantum mechanics, which deals with the smallest known particles. However, these theories are inconsistent, and the quest for a unifying theory continues to fulfill humanity’s deep desire to understand its origins.

The Quest for a Unified Scientific Theory

Newton’s concept of motion, forces, and relative distance challenged the notion of absolute space, much like the observations of a bouncing ping-pong ball on a moving train vary depending on the observer's location. The idea of absolute time was further overturned in 1865 when James Clerk Maxwell discovered light’s wavelengths,Later refined by Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, which demonstrated that light’s speed is constant and that massive objects warp space-time. This means neither space nor time is absolute.

Einstein also introduced the cosmological constant, an anti-gravity force to explain the static universe, a notion later abandoned when Hubble showed galaxies moving apart. Russian physicist Alexander Friedmann proposed models of the universe, finite and infinite, and his work supported the Big Bang theory. Wider acceptance of this theory followed Roger Penrose's studies on black holes, which Hawking extended to suggest a similar origin for the universe.

Einstein, the Big Bang, and Quantum Mechanics

These advancements dismantled earlier deterministic views, like those of the Marquis de Laplace, who believed that perfect knowledge of the universe's state could predict everything.Werner Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, which revealed the impossibility of precisely measuring a particle’s position and velocity simultaneously, further established the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.Scientists then discovered particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons, and Murray Gell-Mann’s 1969 Nobel-winning work identified quarks as their constituents.

Black holes, a recurring theme, illustrate entropy and the laws of thermodynamics. John Michell in 1783 theorized that massive stars could trap light with their gravity. This idea evolved into the concept of event horizons and singularities, where infinite density disrupts physical laws. Hawking’s work demonstrated that black holes emit heat and particles, making them potential energy sources. Hawking also delves into the universe's origins, rejecting the idea of a singular beginning, positing instead that the universe has no boundary.

Black Holes and the Boundless Universe

Various models describe its early state, with the Big Bang model suggesting that infinite heat and rapid particle movement eventually cooled to form galaxies, stars, planets, and life.

Hawking discusses three arrows of time:Thermodynamic (disorder increases)Psychological (memory formation)Cosmological (universe expansion)Even if the universe contracts, disorder would still increase, meaning time wouldn’t reverse. Advanced civilizations might manipulate space-time for time travel through wormholes or Einstein-Rosen bridges, but such ideas remain theoretical. The search for a unifying theory, such as string theory, continues. String theory envisions particles as waves on one-dimensional strings, requiring additional dimensions to function.

Time, Space, and Humanity’s Ultimate Questions

While incomplete, current theories move closer to explaining existence. Ultimately, Hawking emphasizes that understanding why anything exists at all would allow humanity to grasp “the mind of God.”

Full Summary of a Brief History Of Time by Stephen Hawking

#1 NEW YORK TIMES BESTSELLER A landmark volume in science writing by one of the great minds of our time, Stephen Hawking’s book explores such profound questions as: How did the universe begin—and what made its start possible? Does time always flow forward? Is the universe unending—or are there boundaries? Are there other dimensions in space? What will happen when it all ends? Told in language we all can understand, A Brief History of Time plunges into the exotic realms of black holes and quarks, of antimatter and “arrows of time,” of the big bang and a bigger God—where the possibilities are wondrous and unexpected. With exciting images and profound imagination, Stephen Hawking brings us closer to the ultimate secrets at the very heart of creation.

technologyandthefuture

Technology & The Future

scienceandnature

Science & Nature

Stephen Hawking is an accomplished writer whose work has resonated with readers around the world. Stephen Hawking has published several books that explore a range of topics, from fiction to nonfiction, and has received critical acclaim for the ability to weave compelling narratives. Stephen Hawking's writing style is known for its depth and authenticity, and has earned quite a loyal following of readers.

Stephen Hawking

A Brief History of Time

Kierkegaard recounts a story about a man who grew up admiring the biblical narrative of Abraham and Isaac. As a child, he marveled at Abraham’s faith, but as he grew older, he found it increasingly difficult to understand.

He contemplates hypothetical scenarios like:Abraham might have explained God’s command to Isaac, pretending to be a murderous atheist to divert Isaac’s anger toward himself rather than God.Abraham might have sacrificed the ram but lost his faith afterward.He could have gone up the mountain alone, seeking forgiveness for breaking his sacred duty as a father.Yet, none of these possibilities captures the essence of Abraham’s experience, leaving the man unable to comprehend Abraham fully.

To Kierkegaard, Abraham is the "father of faith," a title earned through his unwavering trust in God. When God commanded Abraham to leave his life behind and venture into the desert, he obeyed, trusting in God’s plan. Even when God promised him and Sarah a son despite their old age, Abraham believed, and his faith was rewarded with the birth of Isaac.

The Father Of Faith

However, Abraham’s faith faced its greatest test when God asked him to sacrifice Isaac. Despite the immense difficulty of this command, Abraham prepared to obey, taking a three-and-a-half-day journey to Mount Moriah. While the story often emphasizes God’s intervention to stop the sacrifice, Kierkegaard argues that Abraham’s greatness lies in his journey and willingness to break universal ethical rules to fulfill God’s will.

Kierkegaard identifies two crucial steps to achieving hope through faith. The first is the infinite resignation, where one gives up everything, enduring immense pain. The second involves regaining what was given up in a way that seems impossible.

Two Steps To Achieve Hope Through Faith

Kierkegaard illustrates this with the story of a young man deeply in love with a woman he cannot marry. A "knight of infinite resignation" would relinquish his love, accepting the pain of this sacrifice. A "knight of faith" however, would believe that, through God, he could still be with her in this life, regaining what he had surrendered. Kierkegaard admires those with faith but admits he lacks the courage to take the final step himself. While he knows faith exists, he struggles to understand how it is achieved and has never met a knight of faith.

Kierkegaard critiques the modern world for its tendency to focus on the outcomes of stories, neglecting the struggles and journeys that precede them. He applies this criticism to Abraham’s story, arguing that modern readers fail to grasp the depth of Abraham’s faith and suffering.

Kierkegaard explores three problems to emphasize the significance of faith. Problema I: Is there a Teleological Suspension of the Ethical?Problema II: Is there an Absolute Duty to God?Problema III: Was It Ethically Defensible for Abraham to Conceal His Undertaking from Sarah, from Eliezer, and from Isaac?

Three Problems

The first problem addresses whether there is ethical uncertainty from a teleological perspective. In ethics, the universal dictates that individuals conform to general rules. Faith, however, creates a paradox in which the individual transcends the universal while remaining part of it. Abraham’s actions, therefore, cannot be universally explained; they are either a demonstration of profound faith or an act of murder.

The First Problem

Kierkegaard compares Abraham to tragic heroes like Agamemnon, who sacrificed his daughter for the greater good. Unlike Agamemnon, Abraham’s actions served God’s will and his personal faith, making him a paradoxical figure who defied universal ethics.

The second problem asks if there is an absolute duty to God. Kierkegaard asserts that while ethical duties are universal, faith involves a personal, absolute connection to God. This absolute duty transcends ethical norms, as shown in Abraham’s inability to explain his actions to others. Attempting to articulate them would have exposed him to temptation. The path of faith, Kierkegaard argues, is lonely and fraught with fear, unlike the path of a tragic hero, who finds resolution and universal praise.

The Second Problem

The final problem examines whether it was right for Abraham to withhold God’s command from Isaac, Sarah, and Eliezer. While silence can be ethically problematic, Kierkegaard argues that Abraham’s silence was necessary, as faith is incomprehensible to others. He contrasts Abraham’s holy silence with examples of silence driven by temptation, such as a man who hides the reason for breaking off his engagement to protect his fiancée or a mythical merman who hides his love for a human to avoid causing her harm.

The Third Problem

Kierkegaard concludes that Abraham’s silence was justified by his faith, which places the individual above the universal.

Kierkegaard reflects on society’s relationship with faith. He wonders if humanity has advanced to the point of forgetting the struggles of faith or if each generation must begin anew. Faith, he argues, remains the most significant and difficult human endeavor, and while not everyone achieves it, life is filled with challenges and pursuits worth undertaking. Faith, like love, is a lifelong journey, and those who reach it embody the paradox of regaining everything they have given up.

Ending

The highest passion of man is faith. Many in every generation may not come that far, but none comes further.

Full Summary of Fear and Trembling by Søren Kierkegaard

In our time nobody is content to stop with faith but wants to go further. It would perhaps be rash to ask where these people are going, but it is surely a sign of breeding and culture for me to assume that everybody has faith, for otherwise it would be queer for them to be . . . going further. In those old days it was different, then faith was a task for a whole lifetime, because it was assumed that dexterity in faith is not acquired in a few days or weeks. When the tried oldster drew near to his last hour, having fought the good fight and kept the faith, his heart was still young enough not to have forgotten that fear and trembling which chastened the youth, which the man indeed held in check, but which no man quite outgrows. . . except as he might succeed at the earliest opportunity in going further. Where these revered figures arrived, that is the point where everybody in our day begins to go further.

religionandspirituality

Religion & Spirituality

Soren Kierkegaard

Fear and Trembling

Aristotle’s Poetics explores poetry in general and its specific types, focusing on how poetry affects readers and how to craft impactful poetic stories.

Introduction to Aristotle’s Poetics

He begins with the rules of verse, which he considers natural, and then discusses various types of poetry, such as epic, tragedy, comedy, dithyramb, and music played on instruments like the pipe or lyre. Aristotle argues that all poetry is a type of imitation, differing only in three ways: the medium, the object, and the mode of imitation. The medium of imitation varies depending on the art form; for example, painters or sculptors use color or shape, while poets use rhythm, language, and music.

Types of Poetry and Imitation

These elements can be used alone or together to achieve specific results. In art, imitation involves copying people, events, or things, which can be either morally good or bad.

Aristotle elaborates on the style of imitation, noting that an epic poem tells a story to imitate an object, while a tragedy uses actors on stage. He explains that humans are naturally inclined to copy others because they learn by imitation from a young age. Additionally, people enjoy viewing distressing scenes from a safe distance, such as a stage.

The Nature of Imitation and Human Enjoyment

The pleasure derived from seeing a copy lies in recognizing and understanding what it represents. Aristotle suggests that humans are naturally drawn to rhythm and melody, which explains their affinity for poetic forms combining language with rhythm and tune. He notes that dithyrambic poetry, which mixes poetry and dance, led to the development of tragedy, evolving over time to reach its natural state.

In comedy, weak characters are portrayed humorously, yet they are not inherently weak, and the errors they make do not evoke negative emotions in the audience. Unlike comedy, which avoids painful themes, tragedy and epic poetry focus on good characters. However, epics lack songs and are often narrated from a single perspective. Aristotle observes that while tragedies typically cover a single day’s events, epics can span extended periods. Those knowledgeable about tragedy will also understand epic poetry, as all elements of epic are present in tragedy.

The Distinction Between Comedy and Tragedy

However, tragedy includes more than an epic does, embodying a unified and significant action that elicits fear and pity in the audience, a process Aristotle calls catharsis.

Aristotle identifies six components that make up a tragedy: plot, characters, language, reasoning, spectacle, and lyric poetry, with the plot being the most essential. Tragedy imitates actions, focusing on events in the story. The most effective tragedies create catharsis through unexpected events, with a change in fortune serving as the emotional pivot, sometimes leading to recognition or reversal. A reversal entails an action's change to its opposite, dictated by necessity or probability based on the preceding narrative.

The Six Components of Tragedy

Recognition, on the other hand, involves a shift from ignorance to knowledge, revealing relationships or animosities. Aristotle praises plots that combine recognition and reversal, citing Oedipus Rex by Sophocles as an example where these elements occur simultaneously, evoking fear and pity.

Poetry, therefore, is more philosophical and higher thing than history; for poetry tends to express universal, history the particular.

For Aristotle, catharsis can also arise from tragedies depicting human suffering, such as war. The best tragedies feature complex plots and avoid characters who are overly virtuous or wicked; instead, they depict a shift from good to bad fortune. This twist heightens fear and sympathy, particularly when tragic acts occur between close relationships, like family members. Aristotle then turns to character, listing four traits essential for characters in tragedy: goodness, suitability, likeness, and consistency.

Catharsis in Tragedy

Characters should act decently and fittingly, maintaining consistency or, if inconsistent, consistently so. He encourages poets to visualize stories to avoid errors or inconsistencies. Each tragedy requires a problem and a well-crafted resolution.

In language, clarity is vital, yet it should not compromise dignity. Everyday words contribute to clear diction, but solely using them lacks creativity. Effective poetry balances common language with exotic expressions, including metaphors and uncommon words. Aristotle addresses common critiques of poetry, such as claims of impossibility, illogic, or contradiction, suggesting that many improbable or contradictory elements may be plausible within the narrative context.

The Role of Language and Clarity

Finally, he considers whether tragedy surpasses epic, concluding that tragedy is superior due to its concentrated effect, enhanced by lyric poetry and spectacle, and its brevity compared to epics. For Aristotle, the concentrated intensity of tragedy, exemplified by works like Oedipus Rex, achieves greater emotional power than the extended form of an epic. Tragedy’s ability to evoke terror and pity, resulting in catharsis, ultimately makes it superior to epic poetry.

'What is poetry, how many kinds of it are there, and what are their specific effects?' Aristotle's Poetics is the most influential book on poetry ever written. A founding text of European aesthetics and literary criticism, from it stems much of our modern understanding of the creation and impact of imaginative writing, including poetry, drama, and fiction. For Aristotle, the art of representation conveys universal truths which we can appreciate more easily than the lessons of history or philosophy. In his short treatise Aristotle discusses the origins of poetry and its early development, the nature of tragedy and plot, and offers practical advice to playwrights. This new translation by Anthony Kenny is accompanied by associated material from Plato and a range of responses from more modern literary practitioners: Sir Philip Sidney, P. B. Shelley, and Dorothy L. Sayers. The book includes a wide-ranging introduction and notes, making this the most accessible and attractive modern edition. ABOUT THE SERIES: For over 100 years Oxford World's Classics has made available the widest range of literature from around the globe. Each affordable volume reflects Oxford's commitment to scholarship, providing the most accurate text plus a wealth of other valuable features, including expert introductions by leading authorities, helpful notes to clarify the text, up-to-date bibliographies for further study, and much more.

Aristotle

Poetics

In The Analects by Confucius, Confucius, also known as the Master, states that he enjoys studying philosophy and is gradually incorporating its lessons into his daily life. Yu, one of his disciples, comments that the root of a man's character is his behavior during childhood; if during childhood a boy is obedient, he will grow into a man who has respect for his superiors and does not instigate rebellion. Indeed, the Master believes that it is critical to show respect for one's parents.

Confucius's Passion for Philosophy and Filial Piety

According to him, a son is loyal to his parents if, three years after his father's death, he has not departed from his father's ways. This is what it meant to be filial in antiquity. Nowadays, the Master explains, many people interpret being filial as simply providing food and drink for one's parents in their old age. If you don't show your parents a lot of respect, then giving them food is like giving them the same treatment as giving food to your animals. This is silly, says the Master; parents deserve respect.

To sacrifice to those who are not one’s ancestors is flattery. To see what is right and not do it is cowardly.

According to the Master, acquiring knowledge is critical, and one must develop effective learning techniques. For example, he believes that one must be willing to learn from others while also thinking independently. The Master enters the great temple on one occasion and asks numerous questions. Someone who was also present is puzzled after he departs.

The Importance of Knowledge and Questioning

Confucius is said to be an expert on the rites; however, if this is true, why did he ask so many questions? When Confucius hears of this, he says that asking questions in itself is a rite. Confucius is deeply concerned with the antiquity of ancient rites. Confucius is frustrated when someone wishes to abolish the tradition of sheep sacrifice on the new moon day. He is opposed to abolishing tradition.

For Confucius, cultivating the virtue of benevolence is critical. While gentlemen strive for benevolence because they recognize its importance, small men strive for it because they believe it will benefit them to appear benevolent.

The Virtue of Benevolence and Self-Reflection

Confucius praises those who are able to hold themselves accountable and commit to positive change when they realize they are in the wrong about something, but he is on the verge of giving up hope because he has yet to meet a man who is willing to do so. Although he believes that there are many people who are equally trustworthy and dedicated to a life of service as he is, he feels that he will never meet anyone who is just as eager to learn as he is.

He believes that men who seek to be ingratiating and use cutting language will never achieve benevolence. When the Master considers himself, he fears most failing in his efforts to cultivate virtue through a thorough understanding of the material he has studied. For him, benevolence is only achieved through overcoming oneself, and a person can overcome themselves through dedicated observation of the rites. The Master takes care to distinguish material success from benevolence.

Confucius believes that while one must use the study of the rites to inform their position in public office, if one lacks the ability to apply the study of antiquity, they are unfit to hold office. He believes that leaders should be generous with their followers, not overwork them or tax them unfairly. He believes that understanding the rites is critical to one's ability to participate meaningfully in society.

Rites, Leadership, and Serving Society

Confucius is one of the most humane, rational, and lucid of moral teachers, concerned not with arcane metaphysics but with practical issues of life and conduct. What is virtue? What sort of life is most conducive to happiness? How should the state be ruled? What is the proper relationship between human beings and their environment?  In this classic translation of The Analects by Arthur Waley, the questions Confucius addressed two and a half millennia ago remain as relevant as ever.

personaldevelopment

Personal Development

motivationandinspiration

Motivation & Inspiration

In this gem-like translation by Simon Leys, Confucius speaks with clarity and brilliance. He emerges as a man of great passion and many enthusiasms, a man of bold action whose true vocation is politics. Confucius (551-479 B.C.) lived in an age of acute cultural and political crisis. Many of his observations mark a world sinking into violence and barbarity. Unable to obtain the leading political role he sought, he endeavored to reform society and salvage civilization through ethical debate, defining for ages to come the public mission of the intellectual.

Confucius

The Analects of Confucius

The Analects

In The Subjection of Women, John Stuart Mill argues that the existing condition of gender inequality is not only fundamentally immoral but also hinders human happiness by its very existence. He claims that men should not have more privileges and power than women, and instead, men and women should be completely equal.Mill asserts that the unfair system of gender inequality wasn't chosen through careful thought, but rather came about due to the "law of the strongest," which benefits those who are physically stronger.

Introduction To The Gender Inequality

In a modern, fair society, Mill believes this cruel system should be dismantled and replaced with structures that help everyone get ahead.People often defend gender imbalance by claiming it is natural, but Mill points out that similar arguments were used to justify slavery, which is now seen as a cruel and evil practice. Another common argument is that women willingly let men rule over them, but this is also untrue, as many women—especially those fighting for the right to vote—are angry about their subjugation.

The Case for Dismantling Gender Inequality

Men often don't want to feel like they are controlling women, so they teach women to think or act as though they are content with being controlled.Everyone in modern Europe agrees the best way to run society is through individual freedom and competitive democracy, allowing individuals to focus on activities they enjoy and excel at. However, it is impossible to say which gendered traits are biological and which are socially constructed, because no one has been raised in a society free from these biases. The vast difference in power makes it difficult for men to truly understand women.

The Problem of Women's Subjugation

Some people argue that a woman’s natural role is to be a wife and mother, but if this were true, Mill suggests, women wouldn't need to be forced into these roles. He contends that married women are essentially slaves to their husbands, who often hold complete control over them. In most places, women cannot own land or be the guardians of their own children, even if their husband dies. Divorce, for a long time, was either not possible or too expensive for most women, trapping them in these oppressive marriages.

The Role of Women in Family and Society

Men who have power over women often don't have to prove they deserve it and can take advantage of their position. Some argue that each family needs a boss, just like society needs a government, but Mill warns that despotism exists within families just as much as it does in politics. Instead of being a place where individuals learn about freedom, liberty, respect, and equality, the family can become a place where the opposite values are taught.

Unquestioned Power and Despotism in Families

He observes that women still face much abuse in public life because most men do not want to view women as equals. As a result, many jobs go to men who aren't as qualified as women might be. In a competitive democracy, women shouldn't have to prove their competence ahead of time; simply getting the job would show they are capable. Women may not seem as intelligent or skilled as men, but this is likely due to their lack of access to education. Historical figures like Queen Elizabeth I and Joan of Arc prove that women are more than capable of leading.

Women's Exclusion from Public Life

Women are known for having strong perception which he attributes to their lack of formal education, forcing them to rely on intuition rather than learned knowledge.The negative stereotype about women such as their supposed nervousness or fragility are likely the result of the dangerous and restrictive conditions they have had to endure.Women don't have the same time or money to devote to personal interests, which is one reason there have been fewer female stars in thought, science, or art. Often, women need a man's help to get their work published, and the man receives or takes all the credit.

Stereotypes and Social Barriers for Women

Despite this, neither men nor women often complain about the status quo. When women do speak out, they tend not to blame men directly, possibly because doing so would lead to too many negative consequences. Mill calls for men to join the fight for women's rights, arguing that women are taking too many risks by fighting alone.

The Status Quo and Silence of Women

Ending gender inequality, according to Mill, would not only improve life for women but would also benefit society as a whole. Gender injustice, he argues, is a pressing issue because it corrupts society and undermines the essential moral ideals of justice and equality. Despite the many obstacles they face, women have made important contributions to society, often in secret. Mill laments, however, that women tend to follow societal norms and sometimes even criticize their husbands for being publicly active in causes for equality.

The Benefits of Ending Gender Inequality

Mill speculates that if women received better education and more power in society, they might be more creative and effective in all areas of life, including marriage. Women would push their husbands to improve rather than holding them back. Without gender injustice, marriage could resemble a friendship between equals, where both partners could argue and learn from each other's differences. However, Mill acknowledges that for many, the idea of a marriage between true equals is still difficult to comprehend.

Marriage and Equality

If there is anything vitally important to the happiness of human beings it is that they should like what they habitually do.

Summary of The Subjection of Women by John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill

The Subjection of Women

Aristotle starts Nicomachean Ethics by trying to find the best way to live. To do this, you need to figure out what the best good or end is. This is the thing that people want for its own sake, not for anything else. He goes off topic to say that Nicomachean Ethics will be a work of political science, which is the study of how to make cities better places to live. He also says that this book will not tell the whole truth but will indicate the truth roughly and in broad strokes.

The Search for the Highest Good

Most people think that happiness is the most important thing, but they don't all agree on what happiness is. So, to understand what the greatest good is, you have to understand what a person is for. Aristotle says that this human role is activity of the soul in accordance with reason or more specifically with morality.

Understanding Happiness

There are good ways to think and good ways to act. Virtues aren't something we're born with; we learn them through habits. Since deeds make up a person's character, it's important to find the right ways to act that lead to good character, which means doing things that make sense.

The Development of Virtue

For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them,

Summary of the Nicomachian Ethics by Aristotle

Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" is considered to be one of the most important treatises on ethics ever written. In an incredibly detailed study of virtue and vice in man, Aristotle examines one of the most central themes to man, the nature of goodness itself. In Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics," he asserts that virtue is essential to happiness and that man must live in accordance with the "doctrine of the mean" (the balance between excess and deficiency) to achieve such happiness.

Second Treatise of Government

The Social Contract

Discourse on Colonialism

A Brief History of Time

Fear and Trembling

Kyo