Thomas Hobbes begins Leviathan by arguing that human life is nothing more than the mechanical movement of arms and legs, just as any machine with artificial life functions. He extends this idea to human creations, including art and governance, describing the state also known as the commonwealth or the great Leviathan as an "artificial man."

The Artificial Man

Hobbes starts with the most basic ideas about human beings, focusing on human thoughts, which he describes as representations or appearances of real objects. These representations arise when an external object presses upon one of the human senses, triggering nerve signals that send messages to the brain. The brain then processes these messages as sensations sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.

Of Sense and Imagination

Since objects are always in motion, constantly exerting pressure on our senses, humans experience a continuous stream of thoughts and impressions. However, Hobbes distinguishes between the object itself and the image it creates in the mind.Hobbes contrasts his view with that of Aristotle, who argued that vision and hearing are caused by "visible" and "audible species" that depend on the appearance of an object rather than the object itself. According to Hobbes, when a person stops perceiving an object, an image of it remains in their mind, which he calls imagination.

Over time, these images fade, turning into memory, and having multiple memories of different things leads to experience. Since imagination, memory, and experience are all rooted in human sensory perception, no thought or concept can ever be infinite. While Hobbes acknowledges that God's power is infinite, he argues that this only means it cannot be fully understood by humans.

In the state of nature, all people are equal. However, when two individuals desire the same thing, they become enemies, seeking to destroy one another. Since nature lacks a mechanism for resolving disputes, people exist in a state of constant conflict, where they must fight for survival and respect. Without a central authority, life is marked by continual warfare.

Of the Natural Condition of Mankind

Life in the state of nature is nasty, brutish, and short

To escape this chaos, people are drawn toward certain agreements, which Hobbes calls the laws of nature. These laws, given by God, state that every person has the right to protect their life by any means necessary. However, they also emphasize the pursuit of peace whenever possible.The only way to ensure peace is for individuals to give up their right to self-preservation through violence and transfer that right to someone else via a contract. The laws of nature dictate that promises must be kept unless both parties agree to dissolve them.

To solve this problem, people create commonwealths, forming a society under a unified power. This arrangement is based on a contract where individuals surrender their right to self-preservation to a single person or group, known as the sovereign. The purpose of a commonwealth is to protect its people from harm and ensure their happiness. The sovereign wields absolute power, which cannot be taken away or divided. A ruler cannot be accused of wrongdoing by their subjects, nor can they be punished for any perceived injustices. The sovereign alone determines what is necessary to maintain peace.

Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Commonwealth

Hobbes identifies three types of commonwealths: monarchies, aristocracies, and democracies.In a monarchy, sovereign power rests with one person; in an aristocracy, it is held by a small group; and in a democracy, it belongs to the people as a whole.Since a commonwealth can only take one of these three forms, Hobbes argues that the strength of a government depends on its structure, rather than the number of people within it. Each form of government has advantages and disadvantages, but Hobbes believes monarchy is the best.

Of the Different Forms of Commonwealth

A sovereign may appoint officials to help govern the commonwealth, but no officer can ever hold more power than the sovereign. Any attempt to divide or weaken the sovereign’s power threatens to return society to the state of nature, where war is inevitable. As long as the commonwealth remains intact, subjects must obey their ruler. If the sovereign is captured in war and voluntarily surrenders power, the people must follow the new ruler. However, if the sovereign resists and refuses to relinquish power, the subjects remain bound to their original ruler.

A sovereign has the right to punish subjects who disobey the law, and the fear of punishment must outweigh any perceived benefit of breaking it. The destruction of a commonwealth often results from a ruler’s willingness to accept a diminished authority.People may deny their ruler’s power out of ignorance or for personal gain, but the consequence is always the same: the weakening of sovereignty undermines the very purpose of a commonwealth. Thus, people must respect their sovereign as long as doing so does not violate divine law or the laws of nature.

Of the Rights of Sovereigns and the Limits of Obedience

People learn about divine laws through natural reason (a gift from God), revelation, or miracles. In a Christian commonwealth, individuals believe in God’s spiritual authority, but this does not require them to abandon reason and common sense. Christian commonwealths depend on sacred texts that outline moral and civil laws, and in some societies, these religious rules are incorporated into the legal system. Despite uncertainties about the authorship of holy scripture, these texts are regarded as God's word and hold significant influence over Christian communities.

To understand Hobbes’s argument fully, he explains the biblical concepts of "body" and "spirit." In scripture, these are referred to as corporeal and incorporeal substances. A body occupies space and has mass, while a spirit, like a ghost, is intangible. According to Hobbes, calling something “incorporeal” contradicts common meanings, as nothing can be both incorporeal and have a body. When the Bible refers to "the spirit of God" being present in the air or in people, Hobbes interprets this metaphorically as faith, rather than as a literal part of God’s body inhabiting another being.

Of the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Darkness

Hobbes also criticizes the misconception that God’s kingdom is identical to the Christian church. Instead, he argues that God’s kingdom exists wherever there is a contract between God and his people, such as the covenant between God and the Israelites. God made agreements with Adam in the Garden of Eden and later with Moses, making the Israelites God’s chosen people. However, since these covenants no longer exist in their original form, God's kingdom cannot be fully realized until Christ’s second coming, when he will establish his rule on earth or in heaven through a new contract.

Until Judgment Day, no single religious authority holds universal power over Christians only God and individual rulers have authority. Because sovereignty cannot be divided, Hobbes rejects the idea that one Christian leader, such as the Pope in Rome, can claim power over Christians in other commonwealths. This would diminish the authority of local rulers and weaken the stability of their governments. He argues that true salvation does not require submission to any earthly religious authority but instead depends on sincere faith in Christ.

The apostles instructed their followers to obey human rulers in all matters, even if those laws conflicted with God's law. In the end, God expects people to follow their earthly sovereign until Christ returns, at which point the saved will enter into a new covenant as Christ’s subjects. Hobbes concludes Leviathan by arguing that the misinterpretation of scripture fueled by Aristotle’s flawed philosophy and the Catholic Church’s desire for political authority has plunged the commonwealth into a "kingdom of darkness." His book, therefore, seeks to reveal these errors and correct them.

Full summary of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan, from 1651, is one of the first and most influential arguments towards social contract. Written in the midst of the English Civil War, it concerns the structure of government and society and argues for strong central governance and the rule of an absolute sovereign as the way to avoid civil war and chaos.

Understand yourself and those around you.

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Psychology

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Philosophy

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History

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Thomas Hobbes

Leviathan

Edmund Burke writes to a young French reporter named Depont, asking for his thoughts on the revolutionary events unfolding in France. Burke expresses his strong opposition to the French Revolution and the Revolution Society, which collaborates with France’s National Assembly to spread revolutionary ideas to England.

Introduction

Burke begins his critique by addressing a sermon delivered by the dissenting preacher and political radical Richard Price. In his sermon, Price argues that the English people have the right to choose their own governors, remove them for misconduct, and create a government for themselves, drawing inspiration from the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Richard Price interpreted the Glorious Revolution in his book A Discourse on the Love of Our Country (1789) as a victory for the principles of liberty, democracy, and the people's right to choose their rulers.

Richard Price’s Sermon

Burke strongly disagrees with Price’s interpretation of the Glorious Revolution. He argues that the Declaration of Rights that followed it did not establish these supposed rights. Instead of determining how England’s rulers would be chosen, the declaration secured a clear line of Protestant succession as a safeguard for English freedoms.

Burke’s Interpretation of the Glorious Revolution

The leaders of the Glorious Revolution instituted regular parliamentary meetings, not as a blueprint for future uprisings, but as a defense of rights already outlined in the Magna Carta. Their actions were meant to preserve existing liberties, not to create an entirely new system of government.

Burke criticizes the French Revolution as an impulsive and reckless rebellion against an illegitimate monarchy, severing France from its historical and cultural roots. While he does not entirely dismiss the idea of natural rights, he argues that they are not a sufficient foundation for government.

The French Revolution

Instead, he believes government is a product of human wisdom, designed to address human needs based on a deep understanding of human nature and history, rather than abstract theories. He warns that an obsession with vague rights can cause people to lose sight of actual individuals and instead become mesmerized by the spectacle of change.

To illustrate his concerns, Burke recounts the attack on Versailles on October 6, 1789, when troops forced the king and queen to flee to Paris against their will. He portrays Queen Marie Antoinette in a sympathetic light, lamenting the erosion of honor and loyalty in France. He argues that the victory of the "Rights of Man" has made it more difficult for people to discern right from wrong.

Our patience will achieve more than force

Burke contrasts England’s respect for its long-held traditions and moral intuitions with France’s growing interest in radical deism and atheism. He emphasizes that England sees faith as the foundation of society, while France is abandoning these principles. Furthermore, he asserts that government should be regarded as a protector of society and moral order, not as an institution to be disrespected or overthrown.

Religious and Moral Decay in France

Burke questions whether the French Revolution was even necessary, pointing out that most French politicians in 1789 sought reform rather than full-scale revolution. While he acknowledges the problems within the monarchy, aristocracy, and church, he argues that none of these justified the creation of a "despotic democracy."Despotic democrary refers to a system where democratic structures exist, but power is exercised in an authoritarian or oppressive manner.

Questioning the Necessity of Revolution

He criticizes the revolutionaries for manipulating history, such as reviving memories of past religious persecution to incite hatred against innocent people in the present, including clergymen who have done nothing wrong.

Historical Manipulation

In his detailed analysis of France’s institutions, Burke argues that the new lawmakers in the National Assembly are too ambitious and lack the wisdom and patience required for careful reform. Examining their actions across various sectors including legislation, governance, the military, the courts, and the financial system, he concludes that they are incapable of fulfilling their responsibilities.

Critic of Revolutionary Policies and National Assembly

For example, the National Assembly’s decision to redraw the map of France into equal-sized districts for representation has worsened inequality rather than alleviating it. The already fragile French economy is likely to collapse, as it relies too heavily on seizing land from the church. Meanwhile, the army’s internal discipline has deteriorated, making it incapable of maintaining order or commanding respect.

Burke concludes by advising France to follow Britain’s model. He reiterates that change should be aimed at protecting existing freedoms while respecting ancestral traditions. In other words, France should pursue gradual reform rather than radical revolution.

Conclusion and Advice to France

Although he does not expect to change Depont’s mind, (Charles-Jean Francois Depont.) he urges him to reflect on Burke’s arguments, which are based on years of experience and careful observation. He warns that the French commonwealth may one day find itself in need of such wisdom.

Full Summary of Reflections on the Revolution in France by Edmund Burke

This new and up-to-date edition of a book that has been central to political philosophy, history, and revolutionary thought for two hundred years offers readers a dire warning of the consequences that follow the mismanagement of change. Written for a generation presented with challenges of terrible proportions--the Industrial, American, and French Revolutions, to name the most obvious--Burke's Reflections of the Revolution in France displays an acute awareness of how high political stakes can be, as well as a keen ability to set contemporary problems within a wider context of political theory.

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Society, Arts & Culture

Edmund Burke (III)

Reflections on the Revolution in France

In Mere Christianity, C.S. Lewis examines the life of Christians in great detail, arguing that Christianity is a viable religion from a logical standpoint and defending the faith against its detractors.

Lewis discusses the law of human nature, stating that when looking at history, one cannot help but notice that moral rules are similar across different cultures at a basic level. He argues that moral law is not merely a human invention but a real, eternal thing created by an all-powerful being who exists outside of space and time. This being reveals itself to humanity through moral law.

First Part Of The Book

If I find in myself desires which nothing in this world can satisfy, the only logical explanation is that I was made for another world

Lewis explores different ideas about the nature of this all-powerful being. Pantheists believe that God, who has all power, is neither good nor bad and that everything in the world is divine. In contrast, religions such as Islam, Judaism, and Christianity believe that God created the universe but remains separate from it. Since God is good, these religions encourage people to work hard to make the world a better place. Christians, in particular, believe that the devil is the most evil being in existence.

Second Part Of The Book

However, in Christianity, evil is not an independent force but rather a corruption or misuse of good. Lewis observes that good has often been turned into evil in the world, which led him, in his youth, to question how a just God could allow such suffering.He argues that skeptics questioning the Christian concept of God must still rely on the same standard of justice and morality that, in the first part of the book, he established as evidence of God's existence.

Lewis then attempts to explain why a good God would allow bad things to happen by emphasizing the importance of free will. God grants people free will, which allows them to choose between good and evil, and they will be richly rewarded in heaven for overcoming temptation. At the end of part two, Lewis discusses Jesus Christ, the central figure of the Christian faith. He asserts that the only way to achieve true goodness is to worship Christ. Despite differences in Christian denominations, they all agree on the essential truths about Christ's presence, which unites them in salvation.

He focuses on how a good Christian should live. Lewis outlines three aspects of morality: harmony between people, harmony within oneself, and the constant pursuit of happiness. Moral virtues support these three aspects, while all sins violate at least one of them.

Third Part Of The Book

He briefly discusses the four cardinal virtues, 1. Prudence – Practical common sense, thinking through actions and their consequences.2. Temperance – Self-control, moderation, and avoiding excess.3. Justice – Fairness, honesty, and truthfulness in dealing with others.4. Fortitude – Courage, both in facing danger and enduring pain or hardship.and explains their importance in leading a moral life.

Four Cardinal Virtues

Lewis strongly defends chastity, which he acknowledges as the most unpopular Christian moral teaching. He critiques modern society for promoting excessive sexual indulgence and argues that, like any other human urge, sexual desire must be controlled. He also praises marriage, arguing that it is more profound and majestic than mere romantic love. According to Lewis, true commitment in marriage is about loyalty and mutual respect rather than simply following fleeting emotions. Lewis identifies pride as the worst sin because it leads people to place themselves above God.

Christian Moral

He warns that many who consider themselves good Christians actually worship a false god themselves and secretly believe they are better than others. If unchecked, this mindset can lead to damnation.

At the end of part three, Lewis discusses three theological principles: kindness, hope, and faith.1. Kindness – More than being nice, true Christian love (charity) requires selfless sacrifice.2. Hope – A deep longing for heaven, showing that earthly desires point to something beyond.3. Faith – Trusting in Christian teachings and ultimately relying on God's grace, not just personal effort.As Christians grow in their faith, they may reach a point of hopelessness, realizing the extent of their sinfulness. But, a true Christian perseveres, trusting that God will ultimately guide them to salvation.

Three Theological Principles

Lewis delves into theology, which he describes as the study of God. He examines the concept of the Holy Trinity, explaining that God is both one and three at the same time. He likens this to a die, which has six sides yet remains a single three-dimensional object.

Final Part Of The Book

Lewis also addresses the apparent contradiction between God's omniscience and human free will. If God knows everything, it may seem that people have no real choice in their actions.However, Lewis resolves this by explaining that God exists outside of time, meaning He perceives the past, present, and future simultaneously, while humans experience time linearly and thus have genuine free will.

Free Will

Lewis further argues that by worshiping Christ, people can transcend their mortal nature and share in divine life. In essence, those who follow Christ can become "sons of God." Good Christians unite in their love for God without losing their individuality.On the contrary, Lewis asserts that worshiping Christ is the only way to fully realize one’s true self. When a person prays, they assume the role of Christ, and through practice and faith, prayer can elevate them spiritually, ultimately leading them to heaven.

Good Christians

In heaven, people shed their earthly desires, which once defined their personalities, and instead discover their true selves unique individuals bound together by love for God. This unity is akin to how different organs in the body function independently yet work together to sustain life.

Lewis concludes that to be a Christian, one must relinquish worldly desires. In doing so, one gains Christ and experiences eternal happiness in heaven.

Conclusion

Full summary of Mere Christianity by C. S. Lewis

In the classic Mere Christianity, C.S. Lewis, the most important writer of the 20th century, explores the common ground upon which all of those of Christian faith stand together. Bringing together Lewis’ legendary broadcast talks during World War Two from his three previous books The Case for Christianity, Christian Behavior, and Beyond Personality, Mere Christianity provides an unequaled opportunity for believers and nonbelievers alike to hear this powerful apologetic for the Christian faith.

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Religion & Spirituality

C. S. Lewis

Mere Christianity

John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty explores the tension between individual freedom and the authority of society or government. Mill investigates this topic to address the question of how much influence society or government can justifiably exert over individuals’ lives.

Mill observes that the conflict between personal liberty and authority has existed since the beginning of time. This tension gave rise to the idea that liberty means freedom and protection from tyranny or abuse. Historically, this led to the establishment of representative governments, such as in the United States, where leaders are elected for limited terms and can be replaced by the people. However, Mill notes that oppression is not limited to governmental power, it can also arise from societal norms and pressures.

The Historical Struggle Between Liberty and Authority

When governments claim to represent the will of the people, they often represent only the will of the majority. This "tyranny of the majority" can impose its will on everyone, even if it contradicts individual preferences. This form of oppression is not limited to government but extends to social settings, where those who deviate from societal norms are punished in various ways.Mill argues that society must carefully consider how much public opinion should influence personal freedom and implement safeguards to prevent public opinion from gaining excessive power.

The Tyranny of the Majority

While it is essential to have rules preventing individuals from harming others, neither society nor government should dictate what people can or cannot do if their actions affect only themselves.

He acknowledges that government intervention is justified if it is for the good of society as a whole, particularly when an individual’s actions harm or risk harming others. However, as long as individuals do not violate the rights of others, they should have full control over their choices and actions. Mill also clarifies that this principle applies only to responsible adults, not to children.For Mill, individual liberty includes freedom of thought and expression, the right to choose one’s own path, and the ability to associate with others for any purpose that does not harm others.

The Role of Government in Personal Freedom

He criticizes how society often suppresses individuality by pressuring people to conform to majority opinions, either through laws or by spreading negative views about dissenters.

Mill focuses on individual liberty, particularly freedom of thought, speech, and action, and examines the limits of societal and governmental control over individuals. He notes that debates over the importance of freedom of the press are largely settled and instead discusses how societal pressures can prevent people from forming and expressing their own ideas.According to Mill, society’s tendency to suppress unpopular ideas hinders progress, as it prevents the exploration of potentially valuable truths.

Freedom of Expression and Its Social Importance

Silencing an opinion not only deprives society of the chance to evaluate its merits but also stops people from refining their understanding of other opinions in response. Open discussion and criticism are vital for a healthy society, as they help people avoid blindly following traditions and beliefs without fully understanding them.

Mill emphasizes the importance of listening to criticism of popular ideas, as it helps uncover hidden truths that can improve society. He believes human beings have the capacity to adapt and change when presented with better ideas, but this requires the freedom to discuss and challenge existing norms. Argument and debate about the truth of ideas keep their meaning alive and relevant.Despite the benefits of free expression, individuals who hold unconventional views often face social judgment or even legal repercussions.

The Role of Criticism in Social Growth

Mill worries that these pressures can lead to self-censorship, as people avoid expressing controversial opinions out of fear of being labeled immoral or heretical.This suppression stifles intellectual growth and denies society the opportunity to benefit from ideas that could combine with existing beliefs to create better outcomes.Mill argues that, while freedom of expression is crucial, views should not be protected by law from criticism. Instead, society should value the right to freely express, share, and discuss opinions, even if the public disapproves of how those opinions are presented.

After establishing the importance of freedom of expression, Mill turns to the value of individuality. He identifies a growing threat to individuality: societal indifference to its importance. Many people view uniqueness as a potential disruption to social order, yet they also recognize that mindless conformity is undesirable.

The Value of Individuality

The liberty of the individual must be thus far limited; he must not make himself a nuisance to other people.

Mill asserts that individuality is a fundamental aspect of human nature and that blindly following tradition stifles independent thought and creativity. Over time, this leads to a loss of the ability to think critically. In the past, individuals struggled to balance their individuality with societal rules; now, society struggles to encourage individuality and break free from the grip of tradition.When people fail to think for themselves or follow their natural inclinations, they risk losing essential qualities that define humanity; energy, creativity, and independent thought.

The Decline of Independent Thought

Mill argues that individuality and uniqueness are not only vital for personal development but also for social progress and the creation of new ideas.

Despite this, society often undervalues originality and creativity, prioritizing mediocrity over innovation. Mill warns that this trend threatens human advancement and urges people to embrace their individuality and creativity, rather than suppress them for the sake of conformity.

Embracing Individuality in a Conformist Society

Ultimately, Mill concludes that individuals should be free to do whatever they choose, as long as their actions do not harm others. He calls for a society that respects both personal liberty and individuality, recognizing their importance for the well-being of both individuals and the community.

Conclusion: The Balance Between Freedom and Harm

Summary of On Liberty by John Stuart Mill

In his much quoted, seminal work, On Liberty, John Stuart Mill attempts to establish standards for the relationship between authority and liberty. He emphasizes the importance of individuality which he conceived as a prerequisite to the higher pleasures-the summum bonum of Utilitarianism. Published in 1859, On Liberty presents one of the most eloquent defenses of individual freedom and is perhaps the most widely-read liberal argument in support of the value of liberty.

John Stuart Mill

On Liberty

Jean-Paul Sartre's Existentialism is a Humanism serves two main purposes: First, it aims to provide a clear, though incomplete, introduction to his existentialist philosophy; Second, it addresses criticisms from other philosophers, the French public, and the media. Sartre begins by outlining the major critiques of his philosophy.

Satre's Two Main Purpose

These include misunderstandings that lead to ridicule, accusations from communists that existentialism focuses too much on the individual at the expense of others, and claims from Christians that it is pessimistic and undermines moral standards. In response, Sartre argues that existentialism is a positive, action-oriented philosophy that emphasizes moral responsibility and human interconnectedness.

To explain existentialism, Sartre states that "existence precedes essence." Unlike objects such as a paper knife, which are designed with a purpose before they are made, humans come into the world without predetermined values, goals, or characteristics. The essence of a paper knife is planned before it exists, but a person’s essence is shaped after they exist. This idea highlights human subjectivity, the freedom to define oneself through actions. Since there is no preexisting nature, divine command, or universal guideline for human behavior, individuals must create their own values.

Existence Precedes Essence

Sartre asserts that "man is nothing other than what he makes of himself," meaning people are the sum of their actions while also possessing the capacity to shape their future. Life, then, is a project in which individuals actively construct their identities and purpose.

Sartre introduces the concept of the "human condition," which refers to the universal circumstances of human existence. Unlike essentialist ideas of human nature, which often serve as moral substitutes for religion, the human condition is about how people universally confront their freedom and responsibility. Every individual’s actions reflect their values and contribute to a broader understanding of what is good for humanity. In this way, individuals are responsible not only for themselves but for all humanity, as their choices serve as examples of moral codes for others.

Human Condition

What is not possible is not to choose. I can always choose, but I must know that if I do not choose, that is still a choice.

Sartre explains three central and often misunderstood ideas in existentialism: anguish, abandonment, and despair.

Three Central Misunderstood Ideas

Anguish is the awareness of the immense moral responsibility that comes with freedom of choice. Christians criticize existentialism for this anguish, seeing it as pessimistic, but Sartre argues that it is an inherent part of decision-making. People often try to deny their responsibility by convincing themselves that they are not in control of their actions, a self-deception Sartre calls "bad faith."

Anguish

Abandonment refers to the absence of a higher moral guide, as Sartre believes belief in God is no longer tenable in the modern world. This leaves people "condemned to be free," responsible for their choices without divine or external authority. Using examples like a student seeking advice and a Jesuit prisoner, Sartre illustrates how people remain responsible for their actions, even when influenced by external signs or passions.

Abandonment

Despair, derived from the French term for "no hope," means individuals must act based on the knowledge and circumstances they have without relying on unseen forces or external guarantees of success.

Despair

Sartre directly addresses criticisms of existentialism. In response to the claim that it isolates people in their own minds, he argues that recognizing one’s subjectivity inherently acknowledges the existence of others, as all individuals confront similar existential situations.To the accusation that existentialism renders values meaningless, Sartre compares human life to art. Just as art has no fixed standard yet holds value through the artist’s expression of a unique perspective, human values arise from individuals’ freedom to choose.

Addressing the Criticism

Sartre also addresses the Christian critique that existentialists cannot judge others’ morality. He argues that judgments should not be based on one’s own moral code but on identifying flaws in another’s system or recognizing instances of bad faith. He explains that people in bad faith deny their freedom by claiming they are bound by moral codes they have chosen themselves. Sartre provides examples of literary characters who freely choose their paths and contrasts them with those who follow social conventions or passions without question.

Finally, Sartre tackles the objection that existentialist values lack seriousness because they are subjective. He counters by asserting that subjective value is the only authentic form of value.

People’s commitments whether to work, hobbies, or political causes are deeply meaningful because they are freely chosen. Sartre concludes by explaining why existentialism is a form of humanism. Unlike traditional humanism, which values people based on their inherent qualities, Sartre’s existentialist humanism sees value as something people create through their actions and choices.

He rejects the notion of innate human worth, arguing that individuals constantly shape their own significance. Existentialism is humanist because it finds moral purpose and truth not in God or preordained rules but in humanity’s capacity to define itself.

Full summary of Existentialism is a Humanism

A fresh translation of two seminal works of existentialism &quot;To understand Jean-Paul Sartre is to understand something important about the present time.&quot;—Iris Murdoch &quot;Sartre matters because so many fundamental points of his analysis of the human reality are right and true, and because their accuracy and veracity entail real consequences for our lives as individuals and in social groups.&quot;—Benedict O'Donohoe, Philosophy Now It was to correct common misconceptions about his thought that Jean-Paul Sartre, the most dominent European intellectual of the post-World War II decades, accepted an invitation to speak on October 29, 1945, at the Club Maintenant in Paris. The unstated objective of his lecture (“Existentialism Is a Humanism”) was to expound his philosophy as a form of “existentialism,” a term much bandied about at the time. Sartre asserted that existentialism was essentially a doctrine for philosophers, though, ironically, he was about to make it accessible to a general audience. The published text of his lecture quickly became one of the bibles of existentialism and made Sartre an international celebrity. The idea of freedom occupies the center of Sartre’s doctrine. Man, born into an empty, godless universe, is nothing to begin with. He creates his essence—his self, his being—through the choices he freely makes (“existence precedes essence”). Were it not for the contingency of his death, he would never end. Choosing to be this or that is to affirm the value of what we choose. In choosing, therefore, we commit not only ourselves but all of mankind. This book presents a new English translation of Sartre’s 1945 lecture and his analysis of Camus’s The Stranger, along with a discussion of these works by acclaimed Sartre biographer Annie Cohen-Solal. This edition is a translation of the 1996 French edition, which includes Arlette Elkaïm-Sartre’s introduction and a Q&amp;A with Sartre about his lecture.

Jean-Paul Sartre

Existentialism Is a Humanism

Emerson argues that most human interactions serve as distractions from what is truly important in life But, he presents an ideal model of friendship and it is the one that enhances solitude and dignifies the mundane aspects of life with philosophical purpose.

Introduction to Emerson's Concept of Friendship

The essay begins with a poem summarizing these ideas. In the poem, the speaker values a drop of manly blood more than the raging sea and highlights how a friend’s unwavering kindness continually improves his life, even after death.Friendship, as described in the poem, transforms how the speaker perceives the world and enriches his spiritual life, providing constancy in a chaotic world. This epitaph encapsulates Emerson’s vision of friendship as a profound and enduring connection that elevates and dignifies life through mutual love and respect.

Emerson elaborates on the unspoken bond that draws people together, even strangers, creating affection and a sense of unity. These relationships not only bring happiness but also inspire individuals to act and think virtuously.For instance, friendships motivate good behavior, like making a positive first impression, or encourage intellectual growth, such as when a researcher uses correspondence with a friend to work through a problem.

The Unspoken Bond of Friendship

However, friendship cannot be forced; it arises naturally. Emerson emphasizes that friends are those who perceive in one another the divine essence that animates nature. True friendships might emerge unexpectedly and may not conform to societal expectations. Emerson insists that the rules of friendship are austere and eternal. He maintains that friends should not become too close, recognizing the infinite distance that separates individuals from the rest of the world. Friendship, according to Emerson, is not about superficial pleasures but about profound connections between minds.

True friendship, Emerson argues, requires sincerity a complete honesty akin to being alone with oneself and tenderness, a genuine bond untainted by politeness or societal expectations. This form of friendship is rare because it demands a delicate balance of similarity and difference, fostering both natural affinity and a sense of awe or respect for a friend as an independent, equal individual.

The Sincerity and Tenderness of True Friendship

Deep conversations between friends may lead to a merging of souls, but they can also reveal the myriad particularities that make individuals distinct. Like a gemstone that must be viewed at a distance to appreciate its beauty, a friend must also be respected as a separate, complex being. Such a friendship transcends mere pleasure or profit, offering companionship on life’s journey.

A friend is a person with whom I may be sincere. Before him I may think aloud. I am arrived at last in the presence of a man so real and equal, that I may drop even those undermost garments of dissimulation, courtesy, and second thought, which men never put off, and may deal with him with the simplicity and wholeness with which one chemical atom meets another.

Emerson compares his true friends to books that he reads deeply and then sets aside, revisiting them occasionally. This approach allows him to cherish the company of great individuals while also focusing on living his own life fully. He concludes the essay by describing friendship as an act of total generosity and magnanimity. Emerson encourages readers to embrace genuine friendship as something that can elevate both themselves and their friends, ultimately bringing divine qualities to their lives.

Friendship as a Balance of Solitude and Connection

The only way to have a friend is to be one

Full Summary of the Friendship by Ralph Waldo Emerson

Ralph Waldo Emerson was a celebrated American philosopher and poet who studied theology and was ordained, but later abandoned his career as a pastor due to his unorthodox views. This is a collection of his poems about friendship.'

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Personal Development

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Friendship

In The Second Treatise of Government, John Locke begins by addressing the reader directly, expressing his hope that his work will support King William’s rightful claim to the throne of England. He argues that the only legal way to run a government is through the agreement of the people, and that King William’s rule is based on this principle

Introduction: Locke’s Purpose and Critique of Filmer

Locke also criticizes Sir Robert Filmer’s ideas, dismissing them as doubtful expressions and nonsensical rhetoric. He warns that incorrect ideas about government are among the most dangerous beliefs, though he remains open to reasonable critiques. However, he emphasizes that valid arguments do not lead to unnecessary complaints or conflicts.

Locke refutes Filmer’s claim that God gave Adam natural authority over the world or the right to rule as a father. Locke argues that even if Adam had been granted such power, it would not extend to his descendants, and since Adam lived long ago, it is impossible to prove his offspring still exist. Thus, political power cannot originate from this supposed divine grant.Instead, Locke defines political power as the right to create and enforce laws for the protection of the commonwealth, safeguarding property, and promoting the public good. He distinguish political power from other form of power.

Refuting Filmer’s Divine Authority of Adam

To explain political power, Locke delves into the state of nature, a condition where individuals are free and equal, yet bound by natural law, which prohibits harming others' lives, liberties, health, or property. In the absence of government, everyone has the right to punish those who violate this law, but Locke acknowledges that people may punish excessively.

The State of Nature and Natural Law

Civil government, therefore, arises to mitigate these violent tendencies. Locke differentiates between a peaceful state of nature and a state of war, which occurs when individuals seek complete control over others, threatening self-preservation. He asserts that individuals have the right to defend themselves against such threats.

Locke argues that society was formed to avoid the violence of the state of war, with individuals agreeing to appoint a single judge to resolve disputes. He asserts that everyone has a natural right to self-preservation and to resources provided by nature, which become personal property when mixed with labor. For example, gathering acorns from a tree makes them the gatherer’s property. Similarly, land cultivated by an individual becomes their property.However, Locke imposes limits, stating that people should only take what they can use before it spoils.

Formation of Society and Private Property

Men being, as has been said, by nature, all free, equal and independent, no one can be put out of this estate, and subjected to the political power of another, without his own consent.

Locke also discusses parental power, which he describes as the authority parents hold over their children until they can reason independently. This power is shared by both parents and is limited because it does not extend to the child’s life or possessions. Locke criticizes the idea that kings rule as fathers, arguing that granting absolute power to rulers eliminates personal freedom. Political power, Locke insists, can only arise through the consent of the governed.

Parental Power and Critique of Monarchical Authority

Locke describes the formation of democratic societies, which require clear laws, impartial judges, and mechanisms to enforce these laws. When individuals leave the state of nature to join a commonwealth, they relinquish their personal rights to self-preservation and punishment, transferring these powers to the commonwealth.

The Role of Democratic Society

The legislative power, as the highest authority, creates laws to protect the commonwealth, while the executive enforces these laws, and the federative handles external affairs like war and peace. These powers, derived from the people, must always work for the public good and require the people’s consent.

Locke warns that governments can fail due to external forces like conquest and tyranny or internal issues like corruption and the abuse of legislative authority. He argues that when a government stops serving the commonwealth or enforces arbitrary laws, it loses its legitimacy. If a king abdicates or the government becomes dysfunctional, the power returns to the people, who then have the right to rebuild the government.

Causes of Government Failure and the People’s Right to Resist

Locke maintains that it is up to the people to judge whether their government is acting against their interests, and if it is, they have the right to resist and establish a new government that serves the public good.

Full Summary of Second Treatise of Government by John Locke

"[Presents] one of the great classics of political philosophy, widely regarded as the foundational text of modern liberalism ... [Also includes] 'A letter concerning toleration' aimed to end Christianity's wars of religion and called for the separation of church and state so that everyone could enjoy freedom of conscience"--Provided by publisher.

John Locke

Second Treatise of Government

The Social Contract to address two central questions in social philosophy: 1. How people can remain free while living under the control of a state2. What makes a state's power legitimate

He states that people create nations by uniting their individual powers through a social contract, agreeing to govern themselves collectively and protect each other's rights.To form a country, individuals must relinquish certain freedoms they possessed in the state of nature. However, these are replaced by the more significant civil freedom of living in society, which fosters moral and intellectual growth.

Rousseau states that a state is only legitimate when people govern themselves an idea he calls authority. People make laws and delegate the enforcement of those laws to a government, which represents the executive power.

Book I

Full Summary of The Social Contract by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The eighteenth-century philosopher’s landmark treatise against monarchy that inspired the French and American Revolutions.  “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.”   With these stirring words, Jean-Jacques Rousseau begins The Social Contract—the first shot in a battle of ideas that would set the stage for the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. In the feverish days of the Enlightenment, Rousseau took aim squarely at the all-powerful French monarchy, proclaiming that no despot, no matter how powerful, had the right to terrorize his people. He laid out a plan for a new kind of government—an idea that was radical then, and remains so now.   The Social Contract is a landmark document from a fascinating period in world history and an invaluable guide to the foundations of modern democracy.   This ebook has been professionally proofread to ensure accuracy and readability on all devices.

Leviathan

Reflections on the Revolution in France

Mere Christianity

On Liberty

Existentialism Is a Humanism

Kyo