Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

• Nucleus consist of two kinds of particles, protons and neutrons, almost of the same weight and very heavy.
• The protons are electrically positive charged and the neutrons are neutral.
• An atom has a diameter of about 10^-8 cm. The nucleus has a diameter of about 10^-13 cm.
...

• When a molecule leaves it is due to an accidental, extra accumulation of a little bit more than ordinary energy, which it needs if it is to break away from the attractions of its neighbors.
• Therefore, since those that leave have more energy than the average, the ones that are left ha...

1. Each planet moves around the sun in an ellipse, with the sun at one focus.
2. The radius vector from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
3. The squares of the periods of any two planets are proportional to the cubes of the semimajor axes of thei...

• Heat energy= kinetic energy of atoms—internal motion.
• Electrical energy, which has to do with pushing and pulling by electric charges.
• Radiant energy, the energy of light, which we know is a form of electrical energy because light can be represented as wigglings in the electr...

1. Principle of inertia—if something is moving, with nothing touching it and completely undisturbed, it will go on forever, coasting at a uniform speed in a straight line.
2. Newton modified this idea, saying that the only way to change the motion of a body is to use force. Newton thus add...

When a crystal is cooled to absolute zero (0 Kelvin) , we said that the atoms do not stop moving, they still jiggle. Why?

• If they stopped moving, we would know where they were and that they had zero motion, and that is against the uncertainty principle. We cannot know where they are an...

• “Quantum mechanics” is the description of the behavior of matter in all its details and, in particular, of the happenings on an atomic scale.
• Historically, the electron, for example, was thought to behave like a particle, and then it was found that in many respects it behaved like a ...

• The theory is that there are currents inside the earth—circulating currents, due to the difference in temperature inside and outside—which, in their motion, push the surface slightly.
• Thus if there are two opposite circulations next to each other, the matter will collect in the regio...

• The jiggling motion is what we represent as heat: when we increase the temperature, we increase the motion.
• If we heat the water, the jiggling increases and the volume between the atoms increases, and if the heating continues there comes a time when the pull between the molecules is ...

• It is the nuclear “burning” of hydrogen which supplies the energy of the sun; the hydrogen is converted into helium.
• Furthermore, ultimately, the manufacture of various chemical elements proceeds in the centers of the stars, from hydrogen.
• The stuff of which we are made was “...

That is easy; it is due to gravitation. The earth can be understood to be round merely because everything attracts everything else and so it has attracted itself together as far as it can! If we go even further, the earth is not exactly a sphere because it is rotating, and this brings in centrifu...

• In the Einstein relativity theory, anything which has energy has mass—mass in the sense that it is attracted gravitationally.
• Even light, which has an energy, has a “mass.” When a light beam, which has energy in it, comes past the sun there is an attraction on it by the sun.
• ...

• The new view of the interaction of electrons and photons that is electromagnetic theory, but with everything quantum-mechanically correct, is called quantum electrodynamics.
• It predicted another very remarkable thing: besides the electron, there should be another particle of the same...

• Our supplies of energy are from the sun, rain, coal, uranium, and hydrogen.
• The sun makes the rain, and the coal also, so that all these are from the sun.
• Although energy is conserved, nature does not seem to be interested in it; she liberates a lot of energy from the sun, bu...

What is this law of gravitation? It is that every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force which for any two bodies is proportional to the mass of each and varies inversely as the square of the distance between them.

F=GMm/r^2

where G=6.6743 × 10-11 m^3 kg^-1 s^...

• The energy has a large number of different forms, and there is a formula for each one. These are gravitational energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, elastic energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, radiant energy, nuclear energy, mass energy.
• If we total up the formulas for each of...

• A process in which the rearrangement of the atomic partners occurs is what we call a chemical reaction.
• The heat is ordinarily in the form of the molecular motion of the hot gas, but in certain circumstances it can be so enormous that it generates light. That is how one gets flames.