<ol><li>The Law of Exercise– repetition strengthens learning. (Or, “Practice makes perfect”.) Learning by repetition is called Rote Learning or “Parrot Fashion”.</li><li>The Law of Effect– the effect of reward is to strengthen learning. (Or, “If it’s pleasurable, it will be repeated”.).</li></ol>It’s found reward (law 2) to be more effective than mere repetition (law 1). <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aversion_therapy">Aversion Therapy</a> is replacing “nice” with “nasty”.</li></ul>Ex: to stop habits such as smoking or alcoholism…

Learning Laws 

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection">Natural Selection</a> comes in two parts.<ol><li>First, changes can occur from one generation to the next. This is now known to be random “mutations” in the genes.</li><li>Second, there is the meaning of “Selection”: Changes that are beneficial give the new individual a better chance to survive.</li></ol>Where animals fit into the environment in this way is called Survival of the fittest.

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution 

An attitude can be divided into 3 aspects:1. Cognitive–the beliefs (factual & neutral) e.g. “Smoking is a major cause of cancer”.2. Affective–the emotional feelings e.g. “I hate the smell of cigarettes”.3. Behavioural–the actions taken e.g. “I only eat in non-smoking restaurants”.Attitude change can be achieved by working on all three.

Attitude 

<ul><li>SELF- ACTUALIZATION: the innate human motivation to ACHIEVE OUR POTENTIAL by using and developing our talents and abilities. Each time we experience such a sense of fulfillment is called a PEAK EXPERIENCE. </li><li>In order to reach Self- Actualization, we have to satisfy lower “needs” that exist at different levels.</li><li>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs">Hierarchy of Needs</a>: This is like a ladder where, starting from the bottom, each Need must be satisfied before the next Need up can motivate us.(👆)</li></ul>

Self Actualization

<ul><li>“<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamics">Psychodynamic</a>” means “active mind” - There is mental struggle– especially in the hidden unconscious mind. </li><li>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libido">Libido</a>- “sex drive” is the ENERGY we have that motivates and enables us to survive– sexual activity is one manifestation. </li><li>Intelligence is adapting quickly. </li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionism">Reductionism</a>: Reduce propositions to simple facts.</li></ul>

The Psychodynamic Perspective 

<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial-position_effect">The Primacy / Recency Effect </a>refers to whether we discover information about someone earlier (Primacy) or later (Recency). The Primacy Effect–“first impressions count”–occurs from the moment of meeting a person (within seconds), and the effect of the face, clothes, mannerisms, speech..</li><li>It’s found that people judged a person to be basically “introvert” or “extrovert” depending on the information given first, even when it was later contradicted.</li></ul>

The Primacy / Recency Effect 

<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effect#:~:text=The%20halo%20effect%20(sometimes%20called,or%20feelings%20in%20other%20areas.">The Halo Effect</a> occurs when we generalize a person’s Central Traits. For example, if someone is perceived as basically “good” or “likeable”, then we tend to interpret all their behaviour as such. They can do no wrong! Similarly, someone perceived to be “bad” will tend to be disliked whatever they do!

The Halo Effect

<ol><li>Compatibility: people tend to “pair off” with those who are generally similar or “matching”.</li><li>Rewards and Costs: attention, affection, trust, security, sharing, skills, information, status, money, energy, reproduction, sex…</li><li>Specific Factors</li></ol>Familiarity and Exposure seems to increase liking (As used in advertising and political campaigning!)–Reciprocal Liking–we tend to like people who we think like us!

Sexual Attraction 

<ul><li>……<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_mechanism">These</a> are ways to unconsciously protect ourselves from unpleasant ideas. In small doses, they help everyday survival.</li><li>It’s natural to seek situations that give comfort, especially when under stress. Sucking a finger, thumb, pencil, sweet, cigarette, drink etc, is Oral Regression. However, over- use causes problems.</li></ul>

The Defence Mechanisms 

<ol><li> Recognition is mainly Assimilation– taking in the surroundings, checking that things are the same, provides comfort and security.</li><li>Learning, is mainly Accommodation– adding new information to change existing knowledge. </li></ol>If there was too much recognition– if everything stayed the same– then life would be boring. If there was too much learning– i.e. constant newness– then life would be confusing.

Adult Schemas

<ul><li>It’s found that the optimum period between response and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement">reinforcement </a>is about half a second, i.e. almost immediately. This is very important. For example, if a parent wants to reward or punish a child, then to be effective it should be done straight away. </li><li>It’s better to use a combination of reward (<a href="https://psychology.fandom.com/wiki/Positive_reinforcement">Positive Reinforcement</a>) and withdrawal of reward (Non- Reinforcement). </li></ul>

How To Reward Or Punish Someone?

<ul><li>Why do many animals form social groups? In one word: SURVIVAL! This applies to both INDIVIDUAL and SPECIES survival.</li><li>Individual Survival requires protection (including shelter from the weather and getting food).</li><li>Species Survival requires reproduction (involving finding a suitable mate, courtship and bonding, and protecting others (especially the off-spring).</li></ul>

Survival 

1. An openness to all experience.2. An ability to live fully in every moment.3. The will to follow their own instincts, rather than the will of others.4. Freedom in thought and action, e.g. spontaneity, flexibility5. Much creativity.

The Psychologically Healthy Person Has: 

<ul><li>“<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition">Cognitive</a>” basically means “Thinking”– perceiving, memory, language, problem- solving, and so on. </li><li>The mind is ACTIVE and constantly looking for MEANINGS. They especially studied this in relation to visual perception, e.g. recognizing a human face. </li><li>Principles of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception">Perception</a>: Perception involves both the sense organs (e.g. seeing) and the brain (thinking). </li><li>When we perceive an object, we experience the WHOLE EFFECT or PATTERN– not just a collection of separate sensations. </li></ul>

The Cognitive Perspective 

<ol><li>Proximity– because the dots are close together, they are perceived together as a line.</li><li>Continuity– we tend to perceive two lines crossing rather than two V- shapes.</li><li>Similarity– vertical columns are perceived rather than horizontal rows.</li><li>Closure– missing parts are assumed to be hidden or accidental.</li><li>Pragnanz- A sense of “goodness” or “rightness” is often experienced when objects are symmetrical, simple, stable…</li><li>Figure/ Ground Illusions- We tend to perceive some items in the foreground and others in the background.</li></ol>

WHOLE EFFECT or PATTERN

<ul><li>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego">Id</a> is inborn and It operates by The Pleasure Principle– the baby seeks pleasure and avoids the unpleasurable. The Id typically wants immediate gratification. </li><li>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego">Ego</a> operates by The Reality Principle— To survive, we must sometimes be realistic and plan for the future.</li><li>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego">Superego</a> (influenced by parents) is the “conscience” or “moral watchdog” that stops us from doing wrong, especially in the sense of being anti- social.</li></ul>

The Id, Ego and Superego 

<ul><li>“<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology">Psychology</a> is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour of humans and animals.”</li><li>Nothing is Certain: We can never be certain about the future. Just because something’s always happened in the past doesn’t mean it will definitely happen in the future. </li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associationism#:~:text=Associationism%20is%20the%20idea%20that,of%20sensations%20or%20simple%20feelings.">Associationism</a>: We assume “cause and effect” associations through experiencing pairs of events, e.g. one billiard ball hitting another. </li></ul>

Introducing Psychology

…..Because,<ul><li>It causes the individual to AVOID BEING PUNISHED rather than stop the undesired behavior. ex: a person avoids getting caught etc..</li><li>It can cause the individual to associate the punishment with the PUNISHER, rather than the BEHAVIOUR. </li><li>It may train an individual about what NOT to do, but it doesn’t train WHAT to do. </li></ul>

Why Punishment is Often Ineffective ?

<ul><li>People are so familiar with their own upbringing and way of life that they often forget just how different it can be– not just in other countries but even next door! </li><li>“<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialization">Socialization</a>”– the process of learning the “norms” or rules of society. </li><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture">Culture</a> is the “human- made part of the environment” and comes in two parts: objective (means of transport, cooking equipment, technology) and subjective (beliefs, values, roles). </li></ul>

The Social and Cultural Perspective 

Examines the history of psychology; describes the main schools of thought; and introduces such key figures as Freud, Skinner, and Piaget.

Understand yourself and those around you.

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Psychology

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Personal Development

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Learning & Education

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Books

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Science & Nature

What is psychology? When did it begin? How does psychology compare with related subjects such as psychiatry and psychotherapy? To what extent is it scientific? Introducing Psychology answers all these questions and more, explaining what the subject has been in the past and what it is now. The main 'schools' of thought and the sections within psychology are described, and key figures are covered as well as many lesser-known but important psychologists.