In Plato's "Symposium," Apollodorus, a devoted follower of Socrates, recounts a conversation he had with Glaucon about a dinner party held in Athens over a decade earlier. Though Apollodorus wasn't present, his friend Eryximachus, who was also a student of Socrates, had attended. Eryximachus detailed the events of the symposium, where Socrates had invited him for a discussion on Love (Eros).

Apollodorus

Phaedrus, a young rhetorician argued that Love is one of the oldest and most venerable gods, revered for its profound influence. He believed Love inspires both pride and shame, emotions that drive individuals to noble deeds, such as sacrificing oneself for a loved one, which he argued is beneficial for society, especially in wartime.

The Speech Of Phaedrus

Pausanias distinguishing two types of Love:Common Love: physical and fleeting type of love, often driven by desire and is associated with temporary attractions and physical pleasure.Heavenly Love: This is the more intellectual and enduring form of love, which is focused on the mind and soul. It involves a deeper connection and is characterized by mutual respect and the pursuit of intellectual and moral development.Pausanias argues that while Common Love is important, it is Heavenly Love that should be celebrated and aspired to, as it leads to a more virtuous and fulfilling relationship.

The Speech Of Pausanais

Eryximachus, a physician, offered a medical perspective on Love. He discussed its effects on health, harmony, and balance in the body, as well as its influence on music, weather, and divine relationships. Eryximachus highlighted how Love maintains cosmic and human order.

The Speech Of Eryximachus

Aristophanes, the comic playwright, presented a mythological account. He described early humans as originally whole beings, either male or female, who were split in half by Zeus as punishment. Since then, individuals have sought their other halves through Love, explaining human attraction and the quest for companionship.

The Speech Of Aristophanes

Agathon, the host of the symposium, gave a highly praised speech celebrating Love as the youngest and most beautiful of the gods. He praised Love for its admirable qualities and its influence on all good things. However, his speech was more focused on the attributes of Love rather than a deep philosophical analysis.

The Speech Of Agathon

Socrates then engaged Agathon in a philosophical dialogue. Socrates challenged Agathon’s views by suggesting that Love cannot be a god because it is defined by its need for what it lacks.

Socrates' Objection

Socrates then presented Diotima’s views. According to Diotima, a learned woman, Love is not a deity but a daimon, a spirit that exists between humans and gods.Diotima explained that Love’s role is to give birth to beauty in both the mind and the body. True beauty, she argued, is eternal and unchanging. Diotima outlined a "ladder of ascent" in which the lover progresses from an appreciation of individual bodies to a broader understanding of universal beauty, culminating in the vision of the eternal Good.

The Speech Of Socrates

For wisdom is a most beautiful thing, and Love is of the beautiful; therefore, Love is also a philosopher or lover of wisdom, and being a lover of wisdom is in a mean between the wise and the ignorant.

Alcibiades, a prominent politician, arrived drunk and praised Socrates. He admired Socrates’ self-discipline and intellectual focus but found his lifestyle peculiar and difficult to emulate. Alcibiades’ praise, despite his inebriation, underscored Socrates’ remarkable qualities.

The Speech Of Alcibiades

The symposium eventually descended into chaos because of the effect of excessive drinking. The following morning, Socrates had brief conversations with Agathon and Aristophanes before retreating to live alone.

Ending

A fascinating discussion on sex, gender, and human instincts by one of history’s greatest philosophers.   In the course of a lively drinking party, a group of Athenian intellectuals exchange views on desire. From their conversation emerges a series of subtle reflections on gender roles, sex in society, and basic human instincts. The debate precedes one great after another: Agathon, Aristodemus, Eryximachus, Pausanias, Aristophanes, and Socrates—all describing love in many possible permutations and combinations. The dialogue culminates in a radical challenge to conventional views by Plato’s mentor, Socrates, who advocates transcendence through spiritual love. The Symposium is a deft interweaving of different viewpoints and ideas about the nature of love.

philosophy

Philosophy

history

History

books

Books

politics

Politics

artsandculture

Society, Arts & Culture

Plato

Symposium

1.	The Late Republic Crisis	2.	The Gracchi Brothers	3.	The Rise of Populism	4.	Military Reforms	5.	Social and Economic Inequality	6.	The Jugurthine War	7.	The Rise of Marius	8.	The Social War	9.	The Rise of Sulla	10.	Sulla’s Reforms and Dictatorship	11.	Political Corruption and Violence	12.	The Prelude to Civil War	13.	Lessons from History

Topics You’ll Master Today

The story of the late Roman Republic is one of resilience in the face of crisis, but also of the dangers of unchecked ambition.

Mike Duncan opens by detailing the complex socio-political landscape of Rome during the Late Republic. He explains how economic disparity, political corruption, and the erosion of traditional values contributed to a period of instability and conflict. “Rome in the late Republic was a society teetering on the brink, struggling with internal discord and the pressures of expansion.”

The Late Republic Crisis

The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, are central figures in the early stages of the Republic’s crisis. Duncan explores their reform efforts aimed at addressing land distribution and wealth inequality, and how their eventual murders signaled the violent turn in Roman politics. “The Gracchi brothers’ attempts to reform Rome were met with fierce resistance, highlighting the entrenched power of the elite.”

The Gracchi Brothers

The emergence of populist leaders who sought to appeal directly to the masses marked a significant shift. Duncan discusses how these leaders, including figures like Gaius Marius, leveraged public discontent to gain political power, bypassing traditional senatorial authority. “Populism in Rome was both a symptom and a cause of the Republic’s unraveling, as leaders exploited popular unrest for personal gain.”

The Rise of Populism

Military reforms under Gaius Marius were transformative but also destabilizing. Duncan explains how Marius’ changes, including the recruitment of landless citizens and the promise of land rewards, altered the loyalty of soldiers from the state to their generals. “Marius’ reforms created armies more loyal to their generals than to Rome itself, setting a dangerous precedent.”

Military Reforms

The Gracchi brothers’ fate was a harbinger of the violence that would come to define Roman politics.

Duncan delves into the growing divide between Rome’s wealthy elite and its impoverished masses. He highlights how economic policies and exploitation by the rich exacerbated social tensions, contributing to the Republic’s instability. “The widening gap between rich and poor fueled resentment and unrest, undermining the foundations of the Republic.”

Social & Economic Inequality

The Jugurthine War exposed deep-seated corruption within the Roman political and military systems. Duncan narrates the story of how King Jugurtha of Numidia used bribery and manipulation to thwart Roman efforts, illustrating the moral decay of Rome’s leadership. “Jugurtha’s ability to buy Roman officials showcased the pervasive corruption that plagued the Republic.”

The Jugurthine War

Gaius Marius’ rise to power was marked by military prowess and political maneuvering. Duncan explores how Marius capitalized on his military successes to challenge the traditional aristocracy, becoming a symbol of both hope and fear. “Marius embodied the potential for meritocratic advancement, but also the dangers of military dominance in politics.”

The Rise of Marius

The Social War (91-88 BC) was a critical conflict between Rome and its Italian allies who demanded citizenship and equal rights. Duncan details the causes, key battles, and consequences of this war, emphasizing its role in weakening the Republic. “The Social War highlighted the Republic’s failure to integrate its allies, leading to widespread bloodshed and political upheaval.”

The Social War

Lucius Cornelius Sulla’s rise was characterized by ruthless ambition and unprecedented violence. Duncan examines Sulla’s march on Rome, his proscriptions, and his eventual dictatorship, which set dangerous precedents for future leaders. “Sulla’s reign of terror demonstrated the lengths to which individuals would go to seize and maintain power.”

The Rise of Sulla

Sulla’s reforms aimed to restore senatorial authority and curb populist influences. Duncan analyzes these measures, their implementation, and their ultimate failure to stabilize the Republic in the long term. “Sulla’s attempts to rewind the clock to a more stable era were undone by the very forces of change he sought to suppress.”

Sulla’s Reforms & Dictatorship

The political culture of the late Republic became increasingly violent and corrupt. Duncan provides vivid accounts of electoral bribery, assassinations, and the use of mob violence to achieve political ends. “The Republic’s descent into chaos was marked by the normalization of corruption and brutality in political life.”

Political Corruption & Violence

Duncan sets the stage for the imminent civil wars by examining the rivalries and conflicts that followed Sulla’s death. He discusses the roles of key figures like Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar in escalating tensions. “The power struggles that followed Sulla’s death paved the way for the bloody conflicts that would end the Republic.”

The Prelude To Civil War

The book concludes with reflections on the lessons modern societies can learn from the Republic’s fall. Duncan emphasizes the importance of addressing inequality, maintaining the integrity of institutions, and avoiding the allure of populist solutions to complex problems. “The storm before the fall of the Roman Republic serves as a cautionary tale for all ages, reminding us of the fragility of democratic institutions.”

Lessons From History

Sulla’s dictatorship was a pivotal moment, revealing the depths of Rome’s internal divisions and the lengths to which power could corrupt.

Discover the turbulent years leading to the fall of the Roman Republic in Mike Duncan’s “The Storm Before the Storm,” where ambition, reform, and violence shaped the fate of a civilization.

From the creator of the award-winning podcast series The History of Rome and Revolutions comes the "remarkably engaging" (Washington Post) history of the bloody battles, political machinations, and human drama that set the stage for the fall of the Roman Republic. The Roman Republic was one of the most remarkable achievements in the history of civilization. Beginning as a small city-state in central Italy, Rome gradually expanded into a wider world filled with petty tyrants, barbarian chieftains, and despotic kings. Through the centuries, Rome's model of cooperative and participatory government remained remarkably durable and unmatched in the history of the ancient world. In 146 BC, Rome finally emerged as the strongest power in the Mediterranean. But the very success of the Republic proved to be its undoing. The republican system was unable to cope with the vast empire Rome now ruled: rising economic inequality disrupted traditional ways of life, endemic social and ethnic prejudice led to clashes over citizenship and voting rights, and rampant corruption and ruthless ambition sparked violent political clashes that cracked the once indestructible foundations of the Republic. Chronicling the years 146-78 BC, The Storm Before the Storm dives headlong into the first generation to face this treacherous new political environment. Abandoning the ancient principles of their forbearers, men like Marius, Sulla, and the Gracchi brothers set dangerous new precedents that would start the Republic on the road to destruction and provide a stark warning about what can happen to a civilization that has lost its way.

Mike Duncan

The Storm Before the Storm

1.	The Eruption of Vesuvius	2.	Rediscovery and Excavation	3.	Daily Life in Pompeii	4.	The Social Structure	5.	Housing and Architecture	6.	Commerce and Economy	7.	Art and Culture	8.	Religion and Rituals	9.	Public Entertainment	10.	Health and Medicine	11.	Water and Sanitation	12.	The Role of Women	13.	The Legacy of Pompeii

Pompeii is a unique snapshot of Roman life, frozen in a moment of catastrophe.

Mary Beard begins with the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD that buried Pompeii. She describes the timeline of the eruption, the impact on the city, and the immediate aftermath. “The eruption of Vesuvius was a sudden and devastating event that preserved a moment in time.”

The Eruption of Vesuvius

The rediscovery of Pompeii in the 18th century sparked intense interest in archaeology. Beard discusses the history of the excavations, the methods used, and the challenges faced in unearthing the city. “Pompeii’s rediscovery opened a window into the ancient world, captivating generations of scholars and the public.”

Rediscovery & Excavation

Beard paints a vivid picture of daily life in Pompeii, from the bustling markets to quiet domestic moments. She explores the routines and activities that defined everyday existence in the city. “Pompeii offers an unparalleled glimpse into the ordinary lives of its inhabitants.”

Daily Life in Pompei

Pompeii’s society was complex and stratified. Beard examines the roles and statuses of different social classes, including the elite, the freedmen, and the slaves, and how these dynamics shaped the city. “Social hierarchy in Pompeii was evident in every aspect of life, from housing to public spaces.”

The Social Structure

The architecture of Pompeii, from grand villas to modest homes, reveals much about its residents. Beard discusses the design, decoration, and function of these spaces, highlighting their significance in understanding Roman domestic life. “The homes of Pompeii reflect a society that valued both privacy and social display.”

Housing & Structure

Trade and commerce were vital to Pompeii’s economy. Beard explores the marketplaces, shops, and businesses that thrived in the city, as well as the goods traded and the economic interactions with the wider Roman world. “Pompeii was a bustling economic hub, with commerce woven into the fabric of daily life.”

Commerce & Economy

The ruins of Pompeii tell stories of everyday lives, aspirations, and the abrupt end brought by Vesuvius.

Pompeii was rich in art and cultural expression. Beard delves into the frescoes, mosaics, and sculptures that adorned the city, and the cultural activities that defined its public and private life. “Art in Pompeii was not just decorative but a vital part of cultural identity and expression.”

Art & Culture

Religion permeated every aspect of life in Pompeii. Beard examines the temples, shrines, and religious practices, exploring the importance of both public and private worship in the city’s social fabric. “Religious life in Pompeii was a blend of traditional Roman practices and local customs.”

Religion & Rituals

Entertainment was a cornerstone of Pompeian society. Beard highlights the amphitheaters, theaters, and public baths that provided venues for leisure and socialization, reflecting the city’s vibrant public life. “Public entertainment in Pompeii was a reflection of the city’s communal spirit and cultural priorities.”

Public Entertainment

Health and medical practices in Pompeii were a mix of science and superstition. Beard discusses the medical knowledge of the time, common ailments, and the role of physicians and healers. “Pompeian health practices offer insight into the medical understanding and challenges of ancient Rome.”

Health & Medicine

Pompeii had advanced water and sanitation systems for its time. Beard examines the aqueducts, fountains, and sewage systems that ensured the city’s hygiene and public health. “The infrastructure of Pompeii was a testament to Roman engineering and urban planning.”

Water & Sanitation

Women in Pompeii played varied and vital roles. Beard explores their participation in family, economic, and religious life, highlighting both the freedoms and restrictions they experienced. “Women in Pompeii navigated a complex landscape of societal expectations and opportunities.”

The Role of Women

The preservation of Pompeii offers a unique legacy for historical and archaeological study. Beard reflects on what Pompeii has taught us about Roman life, its influence on modern culture, and the ongoing efforts to preserve the site. “Pompeii’s legacy is a living connection to the past, continuously informing and inspiring.”

The Legacy of Pompei

Understanding Pompeii is to understand the resilience and complexity of Roman urban society.

Uncover the vibrant life and sudden demise of an ancient city in Mary Beard’s “Pompeii,” where everyday life, social structures, and cultural riches come to light

WINNER OF THE WOLFSON HISTORY PRIZE 2008 'The world's most controversial classicist debunks our movie-style myths about the Roman town with meticulous scholarship and propulsive energy' Laura Silverman, Daily Mail The ruins of Pompeii, buried by an explosion of Vesuvius in 79 CE, offer the best evidence we have of everyday life in the Roman empire. This remarkable book rises to the challenge of making sense of those remains, as well as exploding many myths: the very date of the eruption, probably a few months later than usually thought; or the hygiene of the baths which must have been hotbeds of germs; or the legendary number of brothels, most likely only one; or the massive death count, maybe less than ten per cent of the population. An extraordinary and involving portrait of an ancient town, its life and its continuing re-discovery, by Britain's favourite classicist.

Mary Beard

Pompeii

<ol><li>The Founding of Rome</li></ol>	2.	The Republic’s Rise	3.	The Role of the Senate	4.	The Power of the People	5.	The Social Structure	6.	The Punic Wars	7.	The Expansion of Rome	8.	The Decline of the Republic	9.	The Rise of Emperors	10.	Daily Life in Rome	11.	Religion and Mythology	12.	The Legacy of Rome	13.	The Fall of Rome

Topics You Will Master Today

Rome’s history is a tale of remarkable resilience and adaptability, a city that continually reinvented itself.

Mary Beard begins by exploring the mythical origins of Rome, founded by Romulus and Remus. She delves into how these legends shaped the city’s identity and set the stage for Rome’s future grandeur. “The story of Romulus and Remus is as much about what Romans wanted to believe about themselves as about what actually happened.”

The Founding of Rome

The establishment of the Roman Republic marked a shift from monarchy to a complex system of checks and balances. Beard discusses how the Republic’s institutions and values, such as the emphasis on civic duty and the rule of law, laid the groundwork for Rome’s expansion. “The Republic was built on a foundation of shared power and collective decision-making.”

The Republic’s Rise

The Senate was the heart of Roman political life. Beard explains its functions, influence, and how it maintained stability and order. She also highlights the conflicts and power struggles within the Senate that shaped Roman policies and governance. “The Senate was both a stabilizing force and a battleground for power and influence.”

The Role of the Senate

Despite the Senate’s dominance, the Roman people had significant power. Beard explores the role of the assemblies, tribunes, and public opinion in shaping Roman politics and society. “The voice of the people was a critical, if sometimes overlooked, force in Roman governance.”

The Power of the People

Rome’s social hierarchy was complex and rigid. Beard examines the roles and statuses of different social classes, from the patricians and plebeians to slaves and freedmen, and how these dynamics influenced Roman life and politics. “Social status in Rome dictated not just one’s privileges but also one’s responsibilities.”

The Punic Wars were pivotal in Rome’s rise to dominance. Beard details the conflicts with Carthage, focusing on key figures like Hannibal and Scipio Africanus, and how these wars transformed Rome into a Mediterranean powerhouse. “The Punic Wars were as much about defining Rome’s identity as about expanding its territory.”

The Punic Wars

Rome’s territorial expansion was relentless and strategic. Beard discusses the methods of conquest, integration of new territories, and the impact of expansion on Roman culture and society. “Expansion brought wealth, diversity, and challenges, reshaping Rome at every turn.”

The Expansion of Rome

“The myths of Rome’s foundation are not just stories; they are reflections of how Romans saw their world.”

Internal strife and power struggles marked the decline of the Republic. Beard analyzes the roles of key figures like Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Cicero in the Republic’s downfall and the transition to imperial rule. “The Republic’s end was as dramatic as its rise, driven by ambition, conflict, and change.”

The Decline of the Republic

The shift from Republic to Empire brought a new form of leadership. Beard examines the reigns of early emperors like Augustus, their consolidation of power, and the impact on Roman governance and society. “The emperors redefined leadership, blending autocracy with traditional Roman values.”

The Rise of Emperors

Beyond politics and warfare, Beard paints a vivid picture of everyday life in Rome. She covers aspects such as family life, entertainment, education, and public amenities, providing a comprehensive view of Roman society. “Daily life in Rome was a blend of tradition, innovation, and complexity.”

Daily Life in Rome

Religion was integral to Roman life. Beard explores the pantheon of gods, religious practices, and the integration of myth into public and private life, highlighting the connection between religion and state. “Religion in Rome was not just a belief system but a cornerstone of civic life.”

Religion & Mythology

Rome’s legacy endures in various aspects of modern life. Beard discusses the cultural, architectural, legal, and political influences that Rome has left on the world, underscoring its lasting impact. “Rome’s influence transcends time, shaping the world in countless ways.”

The Legacy of Rome

The fall of Rome remains a subject of fascination and debate. Beard addresses the factors that led to the Empire’s decline, including economic troubles, military defeats, and internal decay, and the enduring question of why Rome fell. “The fall of Rome is a story of decline and transformation, not just an end but a beginning of a new era.”

The Fall of Rome

“Understanding Rome is essential to understanding the roots of Western civilization.”

Explore the rise, reign, and legacy of Rome in Mary Beard’s “SPQR,” where the city’s history is brought to life through its legends, politics, and enduring influence.

New York Times Bestseller A New York Times Notable Book Named one of the Best Books of the Year by the Wall Street Journal, the Economist, Foreign Affairs, and Kirkus Reviews Finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award (Nonfiction) Shortlisted for the Cundill Prize in Historical Literature Finalist for the Los Angeles Times Book Prize (History) A San Francisco Chronicle Holiday Gift Guide Selection A New York Times Book Review Editors’ Choice Selection A sweeping, "magisterial" history of the Roman Empire from one of our foremost classicists shows why Rome remains "relevant to people many centuries later" (Atlantic).   In SPQR, an instant classic, Mary Beard narrates the history of Rome "with passion and without technical jargon" and demonstrates how "a slightly shabby Iron Age village" rose to become the "undisputed hegemon of the Mediterranean" (Wall Street Journal). Hailed by critics as animating "the grand sweep and the intimate details that bring the distant past vividly to life" (Economist) in a way that makes "your hair stand on end" (Christian Science Monitor) and spanning nearly a thousand years of history, this "highly informative, highly readable" (Dallas Morning News) work examines not just how we think of ancient Rome but challenges the comfortable historical perspectives that have existed for centuries. With its nuanced attention to class, democratic struggles, and the lives of entire groups of people omitted from the historical narrative for centuries, SPQR will to shape our view of Roman history for decades to come.

SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome

<ol><li>Historical Extinctions (Past Catastrophes)</li><li>Human Impact (Anthropocene Era)</li><li>Species Vulnerability (Fragile Ecosystems)</li><li>Climate Change Effects (Environmental Shifts)</li><li>Ocean Acidification (Marine Life Threats)</li><li>Deforestation and Habitat Loss (Land Degradation)</li><li>Invasive Species (Ecological Imbalance)</li><li>Conservation Efforts (Preservation Initiatives)</li><li>Biodiversity Loss (Species Decline)</li><li>Evolutionary Disruptions (Genetic Changes)</li><li>Mass Extinction Indicators (Warning Signs)</li><li>Human Responsibility (Ethical Considerations)</li><li>Future Outlook (Possible Scenarios)</li></ol>

Topics You’re Going To Master Today

“Right now, in the amazing moment that we inhabit, we are deciding, without quite meaning to, which evolutionary pathways will remain open and which will forever be closed.”

Throughout Earth’s history, there have been five mass extinctions, each dramatically altering the planet’s biodiversity. Kolbert examines events such as the asteroid impact that wiped out the dinosaurs and volcanic eruptions that triggered the Permian extinction. These events serve as benchmarks to understand the severity and impact of mass extinctions. “The history of life is punctuated by periods of great upheaval.”

Historical Extinctions

Kolbert argues that we are now living in the Anthropocene, a geological epoch characterized by significant human impact on Earth’s geology and ecosystems. From pollution and overfishing to urbanization and agriculture, human activities are reshaping the natural world at an unprecedented rate. “Human activity is reshaping the world in profound ways.”

Human Impact

Certain species are particularly vulnerable to extinction due to their specialized habitats and limited adaptability. Kolbert illustrates this through examples like the golden frogs of Panama and the white-nose syndrome affecting North American bats, highlighting the delicate balance of these ecosystems. “Some species are particularly susceptible to the changes we are causing.”

Species Vulnerability

Climate change is a significant driver of the current extinction crisis. Kolbert discusses how rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events are altering habitats and putting stress on species that cannot adapt quickly enough. “Climate change is a major driver of the current extinction wave.”

Climate Change Effects

The oceans absorb a large portion of the CO2 emitted by human activities, leading to increased acidification. This process threatens marine life, particularly organisms like coral reefs and shellfish, which rely on calcium carbonate to build their skeletons and shells. “Our oceans are becoming more acidic, endangering marine ecosystems.”

Ocean Acidification

Deforestation for agriculture, logging, and urban development is destroying habitats around the world. Kolbert explores the impact of habitat loss on biodiversity, from the Amazon rainforest to the Indonesian archipelago, where countless species are losing their homes and food sources. “Habitat destruction is one of the leading causes of species extinction.”

Deforestation & Habitst Loss

Invasive species introduced by humans can outcompete, prey on, or bring diseases to native species, leading to significant ecological disruptions. Kolbert provides examples such as the brown tree snake in Guam and the zebra mussel in the Great Lakes, illustrating how invasive species can destabilize ecosystems. “Invasive species are creating new challenges for native wildlife.”

Invasive Species

Despite the dire situation, there are ongoing efforts to protect and preserve biodiversity. Kolbert highlights various conservation initiatives, such as captive breeding programs, protected areas, and efforts to restore damaged ecosystems, showing that there is hope if concerted efforts are made. “Efforts to conserve our planet’s biodiversity are more critical than ever.”

Conservation Efforts

Biodiversity is essential for ecosystem health and resilience. Kolbert emphasizes the importance of maintaining diverse species populations, which support ecosystem functions like pollination, nutrient cycling, and food webs. The loss of biodiversity undermines these systems and reduces their ability to cope with environmental changes. “The loss of biodiversity undermines the stability of ecosystems.”

Biodiversity Loss

Rapid environmental changes disrupt the slow, gradual process of evolution. Kolbert explains how species are struggling to adapt genetically to new conditions, leading to increased extinction rates. This disruption affects not only individual species but also the evolutionary processes that generate biodiversity. “Evolution cannot keep pace with the rapid changes we are causing.”

Evolutionary Distuptions

Scientists have identified several indicators that suggest we are on the brink of a sixth mass extinction. Kolbert outlines these warning signs, including the rapid decline of species populations, loss of habitat, and ecological collapse. These indicators are crucial for understanding the severity of the current crisis and the urgent need for action. “The signs of a sixth mass extinction are all around us.”

Mass Extinction Indicators

Kolbert delves into the ethical responsibility humans have in preventing further extinctions. She argues that understanding our role in this crisis is crucial for taking effective action. This involves rethinking our relationship with nature and making more sustainable choices to reduce our impact on the planet. “We must acknowledge our part in this crisis and act to mitigate it.”

Human Responsibility

Kolbert presents possible scenarios for the future, based on current trends and potential interventions. She underscores the urgency of addressing these issues to avert catastrophic outcomes. These scenarios range from continued biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse to successful conservation efforts that restore and protect vital ecosystems. “The future depends on our willingness to change our ways.”

Future Outlook

“The Sixth Extinction is likely to be mankind’s most lasting legacy.”

“We are bringing about a transformation that will reverberate through geologic time.”

Uncover how human actions are driving an unprecedented biodiversity crisis.

ONE OF THE NEW YORK TIMES BOOK REVIEW'S 10 BEST BOOKS OF THE YEAR A major book about the future of the world, blending intellectual and natural history and field reporting into a powerful account of the mass extinction unfolding before our eyes Over the last half a billion years, there have been five mass extinctions, when the diversity of life on earth suddenly and dramatically contracted. Scientists around the world are currently monitoring the sixth extinction, predicted to be the most devastating extinction event since the asteroid impact that wiped out the dinosaurs. This time around, the cataclysm is us. In The Sixth Extinction, two-time winner of the National Magazine Award and New Yorker writer Elizabeth Kolbert draws on the work of scores of researchers in half a dozen disciplines, accompanying many of them into the field: geologists who study deep ocean cores, botanists who follow the tree line as it climbs up the Andes, marine biologists who dive off the Great Barrier Reef. She introduces us to a dozen species, some already gone, others facing extinction, including the Panamian golden frog, staghorn coral, the great auk, and the Sumatran rhino. Through these stories, Kolbert provides a moving account of the disappearances occurring all around us and traces the evolution of extinction as concept, from its first articulation by Georges Cuvier in revolutionary Paris up through the present day. The sixth extinction is likely to be mankind's most lasting legacy; as Kolbert observes, it compels us to rethink the fundamental question of what it means to be human.

mindfulness

Mindfulness

scienceandnature

Science & Nature

Elizabeth Kolbert

The Sixth Extinction

Neanderthals became a distinct population around 450 to 400 thousand years ago (ka). They endured for an astonishing 350.000 years, until we lose sight of them somewhere around 40ka.They spread across a remarkable swathe of space: they lived from north Wales across to China, and southwards to the fringes of the Arabia's desert.

The who

First discovery of Neanderthal bones was made in 1856, near Dusseldorf, in a quarry of limestone. Given their ancient condition, abnormal bulk and origin in a cave, they were thought to be of a primitive human.

Meeting them again

Neander "thal" (valley) was named for a 17th century poet and composer, Joachim Neander. It was consumed by massive quarrying and the new valley became known as Neander Thal.The weird bit is that Joachim's family's name was originally Neumann, later converted by his grandfather to Neander. Both names literally mean "new man".What better name for the place where we discovered a new human?

Neanderthal meaning

That any bones at all survive over such immense timescales is astonishing. Every skeletal part is immensely important. They offer a treasure of data on individual lives, simultaneously acting as windows onto entire populations.Specialists apply a vast range of techniques from biochemistry to high-tech visualisation, examining whole bodies or zooming down to the near daily layer inside teeth. Through the DNA they contain, Neanderthal remains are also our direct connection to these vanished people.

An archeology of bones

Both we and they inherited some ancient features in common, but their lineage kept other we lost, while the reverse is also true.Neanderthals & Homo Sapiens reflect two diverging pathways of being human.Our inquisitive minds love to discover reasons for everything, but in fact evolution via natural selection is simply about reproductive success, not forging uber-adaptation. Building bodies is an interconnected process and altering one part can cause transformation elsewhere. While a genetic blueprint is important, how hominins live also profoundly impacts bodies, from bones to cellular level.

Two ways of being human

Shanidar 1, a skeleton found in Iraqi Kurdistan, was well into middle age when he died and has overcome an astonishing number of physical difficulties:<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">his right upper arm suffered multiple fracture and shrivelled after healing, its lower part being amputated;</li><li class="ql-align-justify">his right shoulder blade was malformed;</li><li class="ql-align-justify">he had bony growth conditions that lead to poor hearing;</li><li class="ql-align-justify">he survived multiple head injuries (one leaving him with a crushed face and blind in one eye).</li></ul>In spite of living with chronic pain and his many challenges, he adapted to daily life in the group.

Most battered Neanderthal

It seems unlikely that individual Neanderthals developed their sophisticated technologies without social learning contexts and reasonably elaborate communication.The range of skills and great accomplishment across diverse materials implies some sort of teaching, matching the fact that directed instruction is common to all living humans. Combined teaching by showing as well as telling is most effective, and young Neanderthals likely learned by cultural and bodily immersion.Proof for this are the obvious techno-lithic complexes, the shell-knapping or birch tar technology.

Inter-generational learning

Composite tools that imply the inherent process of joining together must have reinforced collaboration, crucial for hunting and social networks.Birch tar suggests interesting ideas: to comprehend that bark would transform to sticky, pungent black liquid means grasping that matter could transmute. Rather than being destroyed by fire, it would be remade.As tar was cooked, cooled and solidified, then was reheated and softened once again, so cycles of change were witnessed and understood.They combined convention with adaptability. They invented ways to take things apart and join them together.

Minds create things, but things also create minds.

Moving heavily muscled and shorter legs is hard work, but so is beating a bigger heart. Neanderthals would have needed a whopping 3500 - 5000 kcal every day, going up to 7000 in harsh environments when lacking insulating clothes.That's the equivalent of a blow-out Christmas day binge: a fry-up at breakfast, roast dinner and champagne, cheese platter, plus left overs and trifle for dinner. Each and every day.Three reindeers every 7 days would hit that target.To get enough vital micronutrients you need fat, brain, tongue, eyes and marrow.

Food isn't simply nutrition

Neanderthals had a wider array of bitter and sour taste perception, larger tolerance for sampling unfamiliar plants of fermented meats.They kept some food underwater. They stored meat by drying it or by mashing up with fat and marrow.Storing plant based foods would require similar processes, by drying or put in water, which could only happen at living places rather than while out and about gathering.A whole range of options exist with fermentation. Storing in low oxigen conditions allows meat to on the path of putrefaction while still being edible.

Richer culinary world than ours

Scrutinising the shifting of stone by Neanderthals has other implications beyond their capacity for planning or managing time and resources. Since the distances their artefacts moved were the only direct measure of mobility, they ended up being used as proxy for range size.Range size isn't just about land, but about people. If Neanderthals lived in small areas, then they's rarely meet other groups. Moreover, without large territories and extended social relations, it was theorised that Neanderthals wouldn't need material expressions of shared cultural values, which can help maintain networks.

Social stones

Did Neanderthals have a thing for shine and glitter?Examples are known across the Neanderthal world: a quartz crystal, a fossil shell, pumice stones. Can we infer symbolic meaning? A special treatment of them would be needed.At Cioarei-Boroșteni cave in the southern Carpathians excavations uncovered a hard ball-like object, enough to fill your hand, yet remarkably dense. Possibly opal.Residues of black and red pigment were found. What the pigment was used for can only be imagined, but it's significance lies in showing that Neanderthals were interested in applying color to unusual things.

Manuports = carried by hand

Multiple episodes of interbreeding between Homo Sapiens and Neanderthal, even between Neanderthal and Denisovan.A man died at Peștera cu Oase, Romania, between 42 and 37 ka. His genetic ancestry was mind blowing because 11% was Neanderthal. This means he had a Neanderthal ancester within just four to six generations. This man's heritage also shows multiple interbreeding phases with another around 2 millennia before his death.

Interbreeding

Reconsider the complexity of Neanderthal life by seeing them as kindred hominins: curious, creative, adaptable and skilled.

** WINNER OF THE PEN HESSELL-TILTMAN PRIZE 2021 ** 'Beautiful, evocative, authoritative.' Professor Brian Cox 'Important reading not just for anyone interested in these ancient cousins of ours, but also for anyone interested in humanity.' Yuval Noah Harari Kindred is the definitive guide to the Neanderthals. Since their discovery more than 160 years ago, Neanderthals have metamorphosed from the losers of the human family tree to A-list hominins. Rebecca Wragg Sykes uses her experience at the cutting edge of Palaeolithic research to share our new understanding of Neanderthals, shoving aside clichés of rag-clad brutes in an icy wasteland. She reveals them to be curious, clever connoisseurs of their world, technologically inventive and ecologically adaptable. Above all, they were successful survivors for more than 300,000 years, during times of massive climatic upheaval. Much of what defines us was also in Neanderthals, and their DNA is still inside us. Planning, co-operation, altruism, craftsmanship, aesthetic sense, imagination, perhaps even a desire for transcendence beyond mortality. Kindred does for Neanderthals what Sapiens did for us, revealing a deeper, more nuanced story where humanity itself is our ancient, shared inheritance.

Kindred

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