The solubility of gases decreases when the temperature is raised, and that why the dissolved air bubbles out from the water. Then, as the boiling point of water is reached (100 degrees Celsius or 212 degrees Fahrenheit), water vapor starts to form inside the liquid in the form of bubbles.

Why does water bubble when it boils?

personaldevelopment

Personal Development

health

Health

scienceandnature

Science & Nature

UCSB Science Line

For a human or animal to learn whether to avoid, or seek out, a particular experience again in the future, their brain must associate a positive or negative feeling, or “valence” with that stimulus. The brain’s ability to link these feelings with a memory is called “valence assignment”.

Valence And Valence Assignment

In 2016, Kay Tye, today a professor in Salk’s Systems Neurobiology Laboratory and a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator, discovered that a group of neurons in the brain’s basolateral amygdala (BLA) helps assign valence when mice are learning. One set of BLA neurons was activated with positive valence, as the animals learned to associate a tone with a sweet taste. A separate set of BLA neurons was activated with negative valence, as the animals learned to associate a different tone with a bitter taste.

The Neurons Assigning Valence

In the new study, the researchers homed in on the importance of the signaling molecule neurotensin to these BLA neurons. They already knew that neurotensin is a neuropeptide produced by the cells associated with valence processing, but so are a few other neurotransmitters. So, they used CRISPR gene editing approaches to selectively remove the gene for neurotensin from the cells—the first time that CRISPR has been used to isolate specific neurotransmitter function.

The Molecule Signaling Valence 

Without neurotensin signaling in the BLA, mice could no longer assign positive valence and didn’t learn to associate the first tone with a positive stimulus. Interestingly, the absence of neurotensin did not block negative valence. The animals instead became even better at negative valence, having a stronger association between the second tone and a negative stimulus.

Blocking Valence

The findings suggest that the brain’s default state is to have a bias toward fear—the neurons associated with negative valence are activated until neurotensin is released, switching on the neurons associated with positive valence. From an evolutionary perspective, Tye says, this makes sense because it helps people avoid potentially dangerous situations—and it probably resonates with people who tend to find the worst in a situation.

Negative Valence Is The Default State

“We can actually manipulate this switch to turn on positive or negative learning,” says co-first author Hao Li, a postdoctoral fellow in the Tye Lab. “Ultimately, we’d like to try to identify novel therapeutic targets for this pathway.”The researchers still have questions about whether levels of neurotensin can be modulated in people’s brains to treat anxiety or PTSD. They are also planning future studies to probe what other brain pathways and molecules are responsible for triggering the release of neurotensin.

Manipulating Valence

“We’ve basically gotten a handle on the fundamental biological process of how you can remember if something is good or bad,” says senior author Kay Tye. “This is something that’s core to our experience of life, and the notion that it can boil down to a single molecule is incredibly exciting.”

Valence And Prevalence (Valēre And Praevalēre)

Researchers discovered a specific neurotransmitter that helps assign either positive or negative emotions to memories. Their discovery paves the way for a better understanding of why some people are more likely to retain negative emotions than positive ones—as can occur with anxiety, depression or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Researchers discovered a specific neurotransmitter that helps assign either positive or negative emotions to memories.

communication

Communication

What’s Making a Memory Positive or Negative

Jupiter aka as The Sun is a powerful natural deity. It provides Life on Earth as well as Certain Death. The Energy provided by our Star is colossal. It had already wiped out Life from Mars. Consider Living conditions on other planets such as Venus to get the general idea : <a href="https://theconversation.com/venus-was-once-more-earth-like-but-climate-change-made-it-uninhabitable-150445">Consequences of Global Warming on Venus</a>. Our Planet provides us several natural barriers ; some basic examples :<ul><li>Electromagnetic Field : protect us from Sun Eruptions. </li><li>Ozone Layer : filters 98% of Sun's deadly UV rays.</li></ul>

Living in Space : Our Planet is Protecting us from certain Death

<ul><li class="ql-align-justify">12 millions dollars.</li></ul>This is the current Price of such a device. Space Suits are extremely expensive and sophisticated technologies Protecting astronauts from the deadly conditions in Space.To get an idea of these conditions. In the shadow the Space temperature can fall down to -120°C.Exposed to the Sun direct radiations temperature can reach +120°C.

Current Price of an Astronaut Suit (2022)

Humanity Population will reach 8 billions People in November 2022. These 8 billions People can already be all considered as multimillionaires. At least 12 millions dollars each for the service provided by our Atmosphere with no-space-suit-needed.

Nov. 22 : 8 billions Humans on Earth

Simple math calculation :<ul><li>Suit = 12 millions €</li><li>Population = 8 billions people </li></ul> Suit x Population = 96.000.000.000.000.000 € This can be used as a raw estimation of the value provided by the Atmosphere to allow Life on Earth. We call it the Value of Ecological Service. Provided for free by our Planet.

Financial Value of the Ecological Service delivered by our Planet Atmosphere

With this simple estimation we could make some basic scale comparisons : <ul><li>American Economy in 2022 : 24 trillions € (or 24 Tera$).</li></ul> <ul><li>Ecological Value of the Atmosphere : 96.000 trillions € (i.e. 96 peta$).</li></ul> Later Objection : Price of Space suits could decrease with the evolution of technologies.

Economic Magnitude : Scale Comparison

About the Financial Value of some basic Ecological Services provided by our Planet. We are already 8 billions of multimillionaires.

philosophy

Philosophy

8 billions of multimillionaires

Scientists have long known that the human body, including the brain, needs food to function optimally. A diet high in proteins, vitamins, and minerals may have helped Einstein's brain function optimally.

What Einstein ate for breakfast

ompared to breakfast, lunch was much less of a regular occurrence in Einstein’s daily life. In 1915, he wrote a letter to his second son, Hans Albert Einstein, in which he says, “I am often so engrossed in my work that I forget to eat lunch.”

What Einstein ate for lunch

<ul><li>Even when someone else was doing the cooking, Einstein had a relatively simple, if not terribly healthy diet.</li><li>Some of Einstein’s scientist friends would regularly get together to discuss physics and other academic pursuits. In his biography of Einstein, Walter Isaacson writes that Einstein's dinners “were frugal repasts of sausage, Gruyère cheese, fruit, and tea.”</li></ul>

What Einstein ate for dinner

So while it's impossible to tell if Einstein’s diet contributed to his tremendous brainpower, the famed physicist was, unfortunately, plagued by chronic gastrointestinal issues throughout his life. These included both stomach ulcers and jaundice.The physician diagnosed him with a “chronic stomach malady” and mandated a four-week diet of rice, macaroni, and zwieback bread, which is a dry, crunchy German bread similar to Melba toast.

Everything didn't go well, though

In April of 1955, Einstein died from an abdominal aortic aneurysm. Although his diet likely isn’t to blame, his lifestyle habits may have been. According to the Mayo Clinic, tobacco use is the biggest risk factor for developing an abdominal aortic aneurysm. So is a diet of beans, eggs, and mushrooms the secret to cracking science’s toughest questions? Of course not. But eating those kinds of nutrient-dense foods may give you the energy to try.

The bottom line

The answer isn't as simple as you think. 👨‍🔬

From mushrooms to canned beans, Einstein had quite the interesting diet. It remains unclear what, if any, influence his diet had on his ability to understand the deepest levels of physics.

food

Food

history

History

What did Einstein eat? Inside the diet of the famed physicist 

5 key insights from,Rewired: Protecting Your Brain in the Digital Age. by Carl Macri

Rewired: Protecting Your Brain in the Digital Age

We form early attachments that influence our future relationships; we make friends who influence what we watch, wear, and say; we work in groups that form societies; we stay connected to people we love for most of our lives.Humans are wired for social interactions. Our brains are endowed with networks of neurons that compel us to form strong attachments and social bonds. It is critical to have empathy and form strong social bonds. Mental health is under siege in the Digital Age.

1. Our brains are uniquely wired for social interactions.

As a result of spending so much time with our smartphones and a growing number of apps that penetrate nearly every aspect of our lives, we use media and technology as a mood regulator. We no longer tolerate boredom because we don’t have to—stimulation and reward are an arm’s reach away. Over time, online social media and other applications began displacing offline face-to-face interactions. This disrupts attachments with parents, weakens bonds with friends, and diminishes the full capacity of our prefrontal cortex as we become more distracted, divided, and depressed.

2. Beware of your smartphone.

The human brain goes through an impressive transformation from birth to adulthood and we have a pretty good understanding of how and when these changes occur. Can we use developmental neurobiology to inform our understanding of the impact mobile media consumption has on children and adults alike? The answer is yes.The seduction of media multitasking, the risks of constant social media comparisons, and an internet laden with advertising superstimuli are all designed to keep you coming back for more. This contributes to rising rates in adults of anxiety, depression, narcissism, and loneliness.

3. To manage the impact of smartphones, we need to think developmentally.

There are a lot of wonderful things about mobile media, information, and communication technology. But we are all walking around with an incredible amount of computational power with full access to the internet and a world of temptation and titillation in our pockets. Sometimes habits slip into addiction. It’s hard to tell with technology when this line has been crossed since it is so easy to hide unhealthy smartphone habits and their use is pervasive.“When you change your habits, you change your brain—it’s that simple.”

4. Not all tech habits are addictions, but all tech addictions start as habits.

There are many causes for worry about the corrosive effects of mobile media, information, and communication technology in our lives and brains. But there are also reasons to believe that we will create a common expectation that these technologies can and should support us, not divide and depress us. Humans are capable of positive change and there are signs that we will survive the threats of our many smartphone habits. Our incredibly adaptive brains will see us through the technology revolution of the Digital Age—a revolution that will likely accelerate.

5. There is hope for a future with tech-life balance.

There is a difference between surviving and thriving. We need to be more proactive than reactive in order to create a digital literacy for our children and a tech-life balance for ourselves. We need healthy brains functioning at their peak if we will have any chance of dealing with the many problems society faces. The same brain science that informs our understanding of the negative consequences of too much media consumption and unhealthy smartphone habits can also inform clear recommendations about how to move forward.

Surviving and Thriving

“Brains are tricky and adaptable organs. For all the ‘neuroplasticity’ allowing our brains to reconfigure themselves to the biases of our computers, we are just as neuroplastic in our ability to eventually recover and adapt.”-Douglas Rushkoff

Neuroplasticity Quote #1

“Because of the power of neuroplasticity, you can, in fact, reframe your world and rewire your brain so that you are more objective. You have the power to see things as they are so that you can respond thoughtfully, deliberately, and effectively to everything you experience.”-Elizabeth Thornton

Neuroplasticity Quote #2

Rewired: Protecting Your Brain In The Digital Age

Harvard neuroscientist Carl Marci shares 5 key insights from his new book, Rewired: Protecting Your Brain in the Digital Age.

Understand yourself and those around you.

psychology

Psychology

mentalhealth

Mental Health

artsandculture

Society, Arts & Culture

Without the ability to feel pain, life is more dangerous. To avoid injury, pain tells us to use a hammer more gently, wait for the soup to cool or put on gloves in a snowball fight. Those with rare inherited disorders that leave them without the ability to feel pain are unable to protect themselves from environmental threats, leading to broken bones, damaged skin, infections and ultimately a shorter life span.In these contexts, pain is much more than a sensation: It is a protective call to action. But pain that is too intense or long-lasting can be debilitating.

The Importance Of Pain

While the brain uses different pain signaling pathways depending on the type of damage, there is also redundancy to these pathways. These neural pathways morph and amplify signals in the case of chronic pain and pain caused by conditions affecting nerves themselves, even though the protective function of pain is no longer needed.Painkillers work by tackling different parts of these pathways. Not every painkiller works for every type of pain.

The Neural Pathways

A bruise, sprain or broken bone from an injury all lead to tissue inflammation, an immune response that can lead to swelling and redness as the body tries to heal. Specialized nerve cells in the area of the injury called nociceptors sense the inflammatory chemicals the body produces and send pain signals to the brain.Common over-the-counter anti-inflammatory painkillers work by decreasing inflammation in the injured area. These are particularly useful for musculoskeletal injuries or other pain problems caused by inflammation such as arthritis.

Anti-Inflammatory Painkillers

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories like ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), naproxen (Aleve) and aspirin do this by blocking an enzyme called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549795/">COX</a> that plays a key role in a biochemical cascade that produces inflammatory chemicals.Blocking the cascade decreases the amount of inflammatory chemicals, and thereby reduces the pain signals sent to the brain. While acetaminophen (Tylenol), also known as paracetamol, doesn’t reduce inflammation as NSAIDs do, it also inhibits COX enzymes and has similar pain-reducing effects.

The Usual Suspects In Killing Pain

Because inflammatory chemicals are involved in other important physiological functions beyond just sounding the pain alarm, medications that block them will have side effects and potential health risks, including irritating the stomach lining and affecting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/01.hyp.0000116221.27079.ea">kidney function</a>. <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002123.htm">Over-the-counter medications</a> are generally safe if the directions on the bottle are followed strictly.

Side Effects Are There, Of Course

<a href="https://www.verywellhealth.com/using-corticosteroids-for-pain-control-2564537">Corticosteroids</a> like prednisone block the inflammatory cascade early on in the process, which is probably why they are so potent in reducing inflammation.However, because all the chemicals in the cascade are present in nearly every organ system, long-term use of steroids can pose many health risks that need to be discussed with a physician before starting a treatment plan.

Reducing Inflammation

Many topical medications target nociceptors, the specialized nerves that detect tissue damage. Local anesthetics, like lidocaine, prevent these nerves from sending electrical signals to the brain.The protein sensors on the tips of other sensory neurons in the skin are also targets for topical painkillers. Activating these proteins can elicit particular sensations that can lessen the pain by reducing the activity of the damage-sensing nerves, like the cooling sensation of menthol or the burning sensation of capsaicin.

Topical Medications

Nerve injuries, most commonly from arthritis and diabetes, can cause the pain-sensing part of the nervous system to become overactive. These injuries sound the pain alarm even in the absence of tissue damage. The best painkillers in these conditions are those that dampen that alarm.Antiepileptic drugs, such as gabapentin (Neurontin), suppress the pain-sensing system by blocking electrical signaling in the nerves. However, gabapentin can also reduce nerve activity in other parts of the nervous system, potentially leading to sleepiness and confusion.

Nerve Injury Medications

<a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/pain-medications/art-20045647">Antidepressants</a>, such as duloxetine and nortriptyline, are thought to work by increasing certain neurotransmitters in the spinal cord and brain involved in regulating pain pathways. But they may also alter chemical signalling in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to an upset stomach.Opioids decrease pain by activating the body’s endorphin system. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470306/">Endorphins</a> are a type of opioid your body naturally produces that decreases incoming signals of injury and produces feelings of euphoria – the so-called “runner’s high.” Opioids simulate the effects of endorphins.

Antidepressants and Opiods

Although opioids can decrease some types of acute pain, such as after surgery, musculoskeletal injuries like a broken leg or cancer pain, they are often ineffective for neuropathic injuries and chronic pain.Because the body uses opioid receptors in other organ systems like the gastrointestinal tract and the lungs, side effects and risks include constipation and potentially fatal suppression of breathing. All opioids are controlled substances and are carefully prescribed by doctors because of these side effects and risks.

Opioids Are Harmful If Taken Long Term

Although cannabis has received a lot of attention for its potential medical uses, there isn’t sufficient evidence available to conclude that it can effectively treat pain. Since the use of cannabis is illegal at the federal level in the U.S., high-quality clinical research funded by the federal government has been lacking.Researchers do know that the body naturally produces endocannabinoids, a form of the chemicals in cannabis, to decrease pain perception. Cannabinoids may also reduce inflammation.

Cannabinoids

While sounding the pain alarm is important for survival, dampening the klaxon when it’s too loud or unhelpful is sometimes necessary.No existing medication can perfectly treat pain. Matching specific types of pain to drugs that target specific pathways can improve pain relief, but even then, medications can fail to work even for people with the same condition. More research that deepens the medical field’s understanding of the pain pathways and targets in the body can help lead to more effective treatments and improved pain management.

Matching Pain to Drug

Painkillers work by tackling different parts of these pathways. Not every painkiller works for every type of pain, however.

How do painkillers actually kill pain?

Research shows that the combination of temperature and humidity can get more dangerous faster than scientists previously believed.  Scientists and other observers have become alarmed about the increasing frequency of extreme heat paired with high humidity, measured as “wet-bulb temperature.” A 2010 study estimated the wet bulb temperature of 95 F at 100% humidity or 115 F at 50% humidity as the upper limit of safety. Recently this limit was tested on humans in a laboratory setting and showed that the wet-bulb temperature is actually 88 F at 100% humidity or 100 F at 60% humidity.

Rising temperatures and humidity are growing concerns

The combination of temperature and humidity whereby a person’s core temperature starts to rise is called the “critical environmental limit.”  <ul><li>Below those limits, the body is able to maintain a fairly stable core temperature over time. </li><li>Above those limits, core temperature rises continuously, and the risk of heat-related illnesses with prolonged exposures is increased.</li><li>When the body overheats, the heart has to work harder to pump blood flow to the skin to disperse the heat. When you're also sweating, it decreases body fluids.</li><li>In the worst case, prolonged exposure can cause heat stroke.</li></ul>

What happens to the body when the body overheats

Global heat waves are approaching and exceeding the critical environmental limit. In hot, dry environments, the critical environmental limits aren't defined by wet-bulb temperatures because almost all the sweat the body produces evaporates, which cools the body. The cutoffs are based on keeping your body temperature from rising too much. Even lower temperatures and humidity can stress the heart and other body systems, and prolonged exposure may become extreme for the elderly and those with chronic diseases.

Dry vs. humid environments

In high heat, staying well hydrated and finding areas to cool down are important. <ul><li>But those with access to air conditioning might not use it because of the high energy cost or large-scale power outages during heat waves or wildfires.</li><li>The future climate in Africa will not be conducive to the use of even low-cost cooling systems such as “swamp coolers” as the tropical and coastal parts of Africa become more humid.</li></ul> The evidence continues to mount that climate change is a problem humanity must tackle head-on.

Climate change is a problem for the future

Meet “wet-bulb temperature,” the combination of heat plus humidity that gets dangerous faster than many people realize.

How hot is too hot for the human body?

<ul><li>On the morning of July 16, Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins sat atop another Saturn V at Launch Complex 39A at the Kennedy Space Center. </li><li>At 9:32 a.m. EDT, the engines fired, and Apollo 11 cleared the tower. Twelve minutes later, the crew was in Earth orbit, and after one and a half orbits, Apollo 11 got the "go" to head for the moon. </li><li>Three days later, the crew was in lunar orbit, and a day later, Armstrong and Aldrin climbed into the lunar module Eagle and began the descent, while Collins orbited in the command module Columbia.</li></ul>

Apollo 11 

When the lunar module landed at 4:17 p.m EDT, only 30 seconds of fuel remained. Armstrong radios, "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Armstrong later confirmed that landing was his biggest concern as there were a thousand things to worry about.They explored the surface for two and a half hours, collecting samples and taking photographs. They left the American flag behind, a patch honouring the fallen Apollo1 crew, and a plaque on one of Eagle's legs that read, "Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the moon. July 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind."

The landing 

At 10:56 p.m. EDT Neil Armstrong is ready to plant the first human foot on another world. With more than half a billion people watching on television, he climbs down the ladder and proclaims: "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."

July 20, 1969: One Giant Leap For Mankind

There’s something special about watching plants grow and produce life as a new leaf, shoot or stem. When a plant slows down and stops growing, it can be frustrating, especially if there doesn't seem to be anything wrong with it. However, it's surprisingly common, and there are several reasons why it happens.

When your houseplant stops growing

The most common reason your plant may have slowed down is that it's not getting enough nutrients, such as natural light or warmth.  When plants are in panic mode, they may drop leaves and extremities, so their food doesn't have to travel far. Other signs include yellowing or thin leaves and a loss of variegation in variegated plants. The obvious solution is to ensure they're getting what they need.

It’s getting insufficient nutrients 

If your plant has suddenly taken a turn for the worse, it could be infested with common houseplant pests like aphids or fungus gnats. Try wiping the plant's leaves with diluted washing liquid, neem oil or Bloombox club's naturally bug-repellent spray.

It’s got pests

After many years in one pot, plants will have exhausted their soil’s nutrients, and their roots may have filled every available space.Your plants are rootbound when:<ul><li>You see roots coming out of the holes in the bottom of their growing pot.</li><li>If you lift your plant gently out of its growing pot, you will see if the roots have taken the shape of the pot or not.</li></ul>If your plant is rootbound, transfer it to a bigger pot.

It’s root bound 

If you can't seem to find any cause, chances are it's just reached its final size. Houseplants can have an upper limit when it comes to growth. Some houseplants are bred to be slow-growing, so they can be used as decor without taking over your living room.

It’s reached its full potential

Having your houseplant stop growing can be incredibly frustrating – especially when it feels like you’re doing all the right things. Here, a plant expert explains why this happens.

Houseplants stopped growing? Here’s how to work out why (and what you can do about it) 

In geochronology, an epoch is a subdivision of the geologic timescale that is longer than an age and shorter than a period. We are currently living in the Holocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period. Rock layers deposited during an epoch are called a series.

What time period are we in?

Geologic time scale - Wikipedia

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